As you know, the Earth and Venus are almost the same size, so why doesn’t Venus have a magnetosphere? This may be due to the fact that our neighbor in the past did not experience a strong enough collision with a cosmic body.
For many reasons, Venus is called Earth's twin (or sister). Like our planet, Venus is a rocky planet in nature, composed of silicates and metals that are distributed between an iron and nickel core and a silicate mantle and crust. But when it comes to the atmospheres and magnetic fields of these planets, they differ from each other as much as possible.
Throughout the study of these two planets, astronomers have struggled to answer the question of why Earth has a magnetic field that allows it to retain a thick layer of atmosphere while Venus does not. According to a new study conducted by an international team of scientists, this may be due to a major collision that occurred in the past. Since Venus appears to have never experienced a collision, it did not develop a dynamo generating a magnetic field.
Layers of the Earth, showing the inner and outer core, mantle and crust. Source: discovermagazine.com
The study, titled “Formation, stratification, and mixing of the cores of Earth and Venus,” appeared in the scientific journal Earth and Science Planetary Letters. It was led by Seth A. Jacobson of Northwestern University. The team also included experts from the Côte d'Azur Observatory, the University of Bayreuth, the Tokyo Institute of Technology and the Carnegie Institution of Washington.
For these studies, Jacobson and his colleagues started from the very beginning: they looked at how terrestrial planets initially formed. According to the most common models of the formation of such planets, they do not form in a single step. Their growth is based on a series of mass-increasing events characterized by collisions with planetesimals and planetary embryos, most of which have their own cores.
Recent Physics Research high pressures various minerals and orbital dynamics have indicated that planetary cores develop a stratified structure as they gain mass. The reason for this has to do with the fact that there is a large concentration of light elements embedded in the liquid metal, which subsequently begins to sink deeper and form the core of the planet as the temperature and pressure increase.
Such a layered core would be incapable of convection, which is believed to be what allows the Earth's magnetic field to be created. Moreover, such models are inconsistent with seismological studies, which indicate that the Earth's core is composed largely of iron and nickel, while approximately 10 percent of its total weight is made up of light elements such as silicon, oxygen, and sulfur. and others.
Dr. Jacobson explains: “Earth-like planets grew through successive collisions with cosmic bodies. Thus, their core also grew in a multi-stage manner. This method of core formation creates a multi-level stable stratified density structure, because light elements are increasingly embedded in later “growths” of the core. Light elements such as oxygen, silicon and sulfur become increasingly separated into core liquids as pressure and temperature become higher. Therefore, later core mass increase events include more of these elements because the Earth itself becomes larger and the pressure and temperature continue to rise. All this establishes a stable stratification, which prevents the occurrence of long-term dynamos and planetary magnetic field. This is our hypothesis for Venus. In the case of the Earth, we think the impact that formed the Moon was strong enough to stir up the Earth's core and allow the dynamo to generate today's magnetic field."
An artist's impression of the collision between Earth and Theia, which may have occurred 4.5 billion years ago. Source: NASA
Paleomagnetic studies carried out in advance added even more confusion to this already unclear picture. They indicated that the Earth's magnetic field has existed for at least 4.2 billion years (that is, it appeared approximately 340 million years after the Earth formed). A natural question immediately arises as to what mechanism is responsible for the current state of convection and how it appeared. It was for this study that Jacobson and his team looked at the possibility that a major impact could explain the phenomenon.
“The energetically strong impact mechanically mixed the core and destroyed the resulting layered structure. Stable stratification prevents convection, which in turn inhibits geodynamo. It is the removal of stratification that allows the dynamo to operate.”
The energy of this collision would mix the nucleus, creating separate homogeneous regions in which a dynamo could exist. Given the age of the Earth's magnetic field, this is consistent with the Theia impact theory, which posits that a Mars-sized object collided with Earth 4.51 billion years ago and led to the formation of the Earth-Moon system. It may have been this collision that caused the Earth's core to move away from its layered structure and become homogeneous, and over the next 300 million years, pressure and temperature may have caused it to differentiate between a solid inner core and a liquid outer core. Due to the rotation in the outer core, a dynamo effect arose.
The beginnings of this theory were presented last year at the 47th Scientific Conference of Lunar and Planetary Sciences. During a presentation entitled “Dynamical Mixing of Planetary Cores by Giant Impacts.” That's when researchers first pointed out that the stratification of the Earth's core had been reset by the same collision that formed the Moon. It was shown how a strong impact could have stirred up the planet's core during the late stages of their formation. Based on this, Jacobson and other authors applied models of how the Earth and Venus grew matter from the gas and dust disk around the proto-Sun. They were also able to figure out how Earth and Venus grew based on chemical composition the mantle and core of each planet after each mass gain event.
The significance of this research cannot be understated in terms of how it relates to the development of the Earth and the emergence of life. If Earth's magnetosphere is the result of a recent collision, then such an impact could create differences between our planet, which is suitable for life, and any other that is cold and dry (like Mars) or too hot (like Venus).
“The magnetic fields of the planets shield the surface and life itself from harmful cosmic radiation. If such a strong, gigantic collision is necessary for the emergence of a magnetic field, then it is also necessary for the emergence of life.”
According to Universe Today.
Geomagnetism or the consequences of regular interaction of planets
Geomagnetism or the effects of regular interference of the planets
Annotation: The article presents a hypothesis of the emergence and maintenance of the magnetic field of the Earth and planets, considers the mechanism of the appearance of tides on the side of the Earth opposite from the Moon, discusses possible reasons the emergence of forces that force continents to move, distort the shape of the Earth and create jumps in astronomical time. The mechanism of earthquakes is proposed, as well as a version of the appearance of “magnetic tubes” on the Sun, the source of the forces causing equatorial currents and winds is shown.
Annotation: the article presents the hypothesis of origin and maintain the magnetic field of the Earth and planets, the mechanism of the appearance of the tides on the opposite side of the Earth from the moon, discusses the possible reasons for the appearance of forces, forces a move continents, distort the shape of the Earth and create jumps astronomical time. A proposed mechanism for earthquakes, as well as the version of “magnetic tubes” in the Sun, shows the source of the forces causing Equatorial current and wind.
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In memory of V.A. Dedicated to Morgunova.
1. Introduction
One of the most common hypotheses trying to explain the nature of the field, the theory of the dynamo effect, assumes that convective and/or turbulent movements of a conducting fluid in the core contribute to self-excitation and maintenance of the field in a stationary state.
But it is difficult to imagine that heat flows always float up in the same direction - if this convective movement or the turbulence arising from rotation was so constant as to maintain the self-excitation effect, and even in one direction. Although the nature of turbulence is generally unclear - over time, in the absence external forces, the internal substance of the Earth due to viscosity will also rotate uniformly along with the shell. It also remains unclear where the potentials on this nucleus come from and why they are not compensated if the substance is electrically conductive. Why does this theory not explain the behavior of the MF of other planets and field inversion.
Nature itself has provided us with the opportunity to find out the sources of the emergence and maintenance of planetary magnetic fields. She placed them in different orbits, made them rotate in different directions, with at different speeds and added, or not, satellites of various sizes and different directions of motion. All that remains is to analyze these data and, knowing the characteristics of the MF of the planets and, assuming that the physics of the MF should be the same for all planets, find the forces that create flows of charged particles (electric current), which, in turn, create the MF. The option of a permanent magnet located in the body of the planet is not considered.
Let us recall that electric current is the directional movement of charged particles. The direction of the current is taken to be the movement of positive charges. The direction of the magnetic field lines created by this current is determined by the “gimlet” rule. We also note that the American physicist H. Rowland proved in 1878 that the movement of charges on a moving conductor, in its magnetic effect, is identical to the conduction current in a stationary conductor.
Before we begin to compare the MF of the planets of the Solar System, let’s consider what and how an electric current can be created in the body of a planet.
2. Reasons for the appearance of an electric dipole in the body of the planet
According to modern theories structure of the Earth, substances below the lower mantle are in liquid state(metallic phase) - plasma - where electrons are separated from nuclei.
I would like to immediately note that modern model the structure of the Earth, with a solid core inside, surrounded by liquid melt, is based on a study of the behavior of acoustic (seismic) waves, their ability to travel differently in solid and liquid media. High-temperature plasma, with dense packing of nuclei, will conduct seismic waves as well as a solid (crystalline) substance, which does not contradict the measured data, and the accepted boundary of the solid core is the boundary of the transition to the state of high-temperature plasma.
Thus, we have inside the planet a plasma under enormous pressure, characterized by the presence of free electrons and nuclei, deprived of their electron shell (having ideal electrical conductivity), behaving like a liquid structure, but having acoustic conductivity like a crystal.
3. Reasons for appearance electric current in the body of the planet
Using the Earth as an example, let's consider the physics of creating a magnetic field.
The Earth is at the mercy of two main sources of gravity - the Sun and the Moon. The influence of the Sun is greater than the influence of the Moon, according to various sources, from 30 to 200 times. Its influence is approximately the same for any point on the planet - the diameter of the Earth is negligible compared to the distance to the Sun. As noted by A.L. Chizhevsky (1976), the Earth is located at a distance of only 107 diameters of the Sun from it. “Taking into account the diameter of the Sun, equal to 1390891 km, as well as the enormous power of the physical and chemical processes occurring on the Sun, it is necessary to recognize, therefore, that globe is in the field of enormous intensity of its influence"
In particular, this applies to gravitational forces. The influence of the Moon is more “superficial” and heterogeneous (We will look at this in more detail in the section on tides.).
If you imagine the Earth as a ball filled with different densities and specific gravity substances, and the Sun as a source of gravitational force that acts on these substances, it is obvious that heavier structures will “settle” to the shell of the ball closest to it and the distribution of density and mass inside the Earth will be uneven not only in depth, but and towards the Sun.
The nuclei and positive ions of plasma, like any substance, are much heavier than electrons and, obviously, the plasma, under the influence of external gravitational forces, will be separated by density (as, for example, waste rock and metal are separated from these forces in a gold miner's tray) and they will precipitate . Inside the Earth's core there will be a separation not only in mass, but also in electrical potential. The Earth's core has acquired the appearance of a dipole with a significantly shifted center of mass, where the “+” and the main mass of the core are closer to the Sun.
Fig 1. Distribution of masses and charges under the influence of the Sun and Moon
As the Earth rotates, the heavy part of the Earth's core will follow the Sun, thereby creating a directed movement of electrically charged particles and at the same time a circular, cyclic displacement of the Earth's center of mass relative to its shell. This, of course, does not mean that on one side inside the ball there is pure “+”, and on the other “-”, then when such a dipole rotates, a magnetic field would not work due to mutual compensation. It’s just that the radii of movement are different and therefore different linear speeds, and therefore potential currents. There is some compensation from the movement of different charges, but “+” predominates.
This moving polarized core creates the Earth's magnetic field.
The generated pulsating (for a point on the surface), with a period of 1 day, magnetic field of the Earth is supported by the paramagnetic properties of the planet’s body, which smoothes and stabilizes its behavior. The mass of the planet magnetized in this way creates the main (main) field.
It is clear that the existing MF anomalies were formed in a different direction of movement of charged flows and perhaps at other speeds and potentials, and possibly under other temperature conditions. The current field is not able to remagnetize them.
Apart from the Sun, all planets and especially the Moon influence the behavior of the Earth’s core.
This mechanism for other planets will naturally be somewhat different due to differences in the objects influencing the core of the planet, somewhere it may be the Sun, somewhere satellites, as well as the properties of the planet itself, but the physics of the phenomenon is the same.
One of the confirmations of the hypothesis under consideration can be daily and annual variations in the direction of the magnetic field strength, i.e. the dependence of the field on the position of the Earth relative to other objects of influence, which make adjustments to the separation by mass, charge and trajectory of the nucleus. (In the case of the currently accepted hydromagnetic dynamo hypothesis, there should be no such influence.)
We often have to answer the following question: “The Coulomb forces of attraction are much greater than the forces of gravity and they will not allow the latter to separate matter.” There is some confusion here:
1. The hypothesis does not involve the gravitational forces of two particles, but gravity from the Sun, acting on particles of different masses.
2. Coulomb attractive forces involve interaction between oppositely charged particles, but not between volumes of differently charged particles. Here they participate only in the boundary layer. The farther from the contact boundary, the repulsive forces of equally charged particles become more important.
Example from real life- thunderclouds have different potentials and lightning proves this, but they do not tend to unite.
4. Seasonal variations in the trajectory of the nucleus
In fact, the heavy part of the core moves from East to West and in a North-South spiral and back when the inclination of the rotation axis changes (the season changes).
Figure 2. Seasonal shifts in the trajectory of the core movement
Very interesting measured data were provided by employees of the “Institute for Monitoring Climatic and Ecological Systems SB RAS” in their work (Yu.P. Malyshkov, 2009).
Based on many years of research into the Earth’s natural pulsed electromagnetic fields (PEEMF) in the seismically active regions of the Baikal region, they came to the conclusion about the movement of the planet’s core and related natural phenomena - seismic activity, influence on the human body, etc. This is truly remarkable work that continues, already more technological level, research by A. Chizhevsky.
Pictures of the intensity of changes in EMPI in various moments time exactly repeat the expected movement of the heavy part of the dipole.
Fig.3 Averaged for 1997-2004 and smoothed daily variations of the ENPEMF in polar coordinates
These figures show how the intensity of EM field disturbances changes during the time of day and depending on the time of year. It can be seen how in the winter months the intensity decreases significantly and the maximum goes into the night, that is, when Southern Hemisphere summer and the heavy part of the core is there, directly opposite the measurement site.
As noted in this work, the area of thunderstorms also migrates during the year following the planet’s core, which can also be explained by the interaction of the charged core and atmospheric electricity, like a huge capacitor. The explanation of this interaction deserves a separate study.
5. Comparison of the magnetic fields of the planets
Based on what has been said, it becomes clear that a magnetic field appears on other planets where there are satellites or there is a dynamic influence of the Sun, and the absence where they do not exist. For example, Venus does not have a field - there are no satellites and it very slowly, in 243 Earth days, revolves around its axis, and in 225 around the Sun, i.e. if polarization is created within it, then it is not mobile enough. Or the planet has cooled down and does not have a liquid inner core (Moon). A change in the polarity of the magnetic field with a changed direction of rotation of the satellite(s) - (Mars) or the presence of a complex field with complex relationships between the planet and the satellites - (Uranus, Neptune).
It is interesting that Mercury, which does not have satellites, has a field similar to the Earth’s, albeit much smaller, but it itself is a satellite of the Sun, and close and revolves around the Sun quite quickly - 89 Earth days, although it rotates around its axis in 59 days. Mercury's field is symmetrical and directed along the rotation axis. The inclination of the equator relative to the orbital plane is only 0.1 degrees. That is, the field appears not only due to its own rotation, like the Earth, but also due to movement around the Sun.
Uranus - the rotation of Uranus is reversed. The satellites rotate in reverse. The orbits of the satellites are steeply inclined to the ecliptic plane. The plane of Uranus's equator is inclined to the plane of its orbit at an angle of 97.86° - that is, the planet rotates, “lying on its side.” If other planets can be compared to rotating tops, then Uranus is more like a rolling ball; Uranus has a very specific magnetic field, which is not directed from geometric center planet, and is tilted 59 degrees relative to the axis of rotation. In fact, the magnetic dipole is shifted from the center of the planet to the south pole by about 1/3 of the radius of the planet. This unusual geometry results in a highly asymmetrical magnetic field. The polarity is opposite to the Earth's.
A good indicator of the influence of motion trajectories on the shape of the field can be a comparison of the fields of Jupiter and Earth. Jupiter's field is more reminiscent of a flat disk - it and most of its satellites rotate in regular circular orbits in the equatorial plane and the axis of rotation of the planet itself is slightly inclined, there are no changes in seasons, and Earth, whose field shape is similar to a bull's-eye, is itself oscillates relative to the plane of the ecliptic. This can be compared as the fields from two different electromagnetic coils - wound turn to turn on a “sleeve” and like a tape cassette.
6. 11-year period of solar activity
You can notice another pattern that was known but for some reason ignored, this is the coincidence of the period of circulation of the big planet solar system, – Jupiter, from 11 in summer Solar activity and the influence of this period on the number of “Sunspots” formed. Jupiter is 1,320 times larger in volume and 317 times in mass than Earth, and its influence on the Sun exceeds that of all the other planets combined. It is only 1000 times smaller than the star.
If we imagine that this “heavy” one, following Jupiter, the center of the Sun, moves in subsurface space and at the same time is charged electric potential, then this can lead to the appearance of “magnetic tubes” on the surface, i.e. to the exit points of both poles of local magnetic fields. Everyone has probably observed how multidirectional turbulence is created from an oar in calm water.
7. The influence of Jupiter on the Earth's biosphere
A.L. Chizhevsky, in many years of research into the influence of solar activity on the Earth’s biosphere, unambiguously showed the direct dependence of these processes, suggesting that disturbances observed as “spots on the Sun” cause radiation that, reaching the earth’s surface and penetrating inside it, affects all living and nonliving things. (A.L. Chizhevsky, 1976).
Thus, we can say that Jupiter, through its influence on the Sun, causes processes that affect the Earth. The proposed hypothesis can help explain the appearance of electromagnetic radiation (magnetic storms) in a wide frequency range, resulting from abruptly changing flows of charged solar matter.
The cause of all periodic phenomena occurring on the planets should most likely be sought in their external environment - this, by the way, is the basis of astrology. Any celestial body, not influenced by other bodies, will tend to adopt an arrangement of its constituent parts in which the interaction between them is minimal and the temperature is equal to the ambient temperature. Even chemical and radioactive processes have a finite lifespan. Only external influence can periodically remove the planet from its established balanced state.
It can be assumed that it is the interaction of the planets with each other that leads to the heating of internal structures and, for example, for the Earth, is the main factor providing the current temperature conditions under which the existence of known forms of biological life is possible.
8. Equatorial currents
In the literature, the nature of equatorial currents is usually explained by winds constantly blowing in the same direction, and the nature of winds by the heating of the surface and the rotation of the Earth. Of course, all this affects both the ocean and the air masses, but the main influence is exerted by the force of gravity from the moving ligaments of the earth's core - the Moon, the earth's core - the Sun, the gravitational influence of which includes everything that is between them and is carried along with it from East to West.
A similar phenomenon can be seen on planets with satellites - their dust rings are located opposite the trajectories of the satellites. If on the surface of the Earth the land of the continents interferes with the through flow and forces the flows to turn in the opposite direction along the peripheral areas, then on other planets the flows are looped. On Jupiter, the "Red Spot" is very similar to an obstacle washed by a stream.
9. Lunar-solar tides on Earth
Let's consider the mechanism of influence of gravitational forces using our Earth as an example. It is most influenced by the Sun and Moon. But, although for the globe the magnitude of the gravitational force of the Sun is almost 200 times greater than the gravitational force of the Moon, the tidal forces generated by the Moon are almost twice as large as those generated by the Sun. This is due to the fact that tidal forces do not depend on the magnitude gravitational field, but on the degree of its heterogeneity. As the distance from the field source increases, the inhomogeneity decreases faster than the magnitude of the field itself. Because the Sun is almost 400 times farther from Earth than the Moon, the tidal forces caused by the sun's gravity are weaker. Fig 1.
In other words, we can say that the Moon's tidal forces are more "shallow", local, local and have a greater effect on the ocean and upper layers of the mantle, while the Sun's gravity is more uniform and affects the entire body of the planet and can be considered approximately the same anywhere on Earth .
When the Earth rotates, these two forces are summed up and the tidal wave is a superposition of two waves formed as a result of the gravitational interaction of the planetary pair Earth - Moon and the gravitational interaction of this pair with the central luminary - the Sun.
In addition to the tides on the side of the Earth facing the Moon, there are tides on opposite side, approximately the same in size. The presence of such a phenomenon in the literature is explained by a decrease in the gravitational forces of the Moon and centrifugal forces that arise during the rotation of the Earth-Moon ligament. But then the Moon would also have a tide at back side, and would be there all the time, because it does not rotate relative to the Earth, especially since it moves at a greater distance from the center of mass than the opposite side of the Earth. But it is known that the center of gravity and elongation of the Moon shifts towards the Earth, and there is no tide on the invisible side. In addition, as already mentioned, the tides are caused not only by the Moon, but by the total influence with the Sun, and then the center of mass must then be sought for the three planets.
Fig.5. Forces acting on points on the Earth's surface are
with uniform mass distribution.
If we compare the forces acting on the surface of the Earth at low tide (vol. 2) and high tide in the “shadow” part of the Earth from the Moon (vol. 1), then the forces of attraction in the “shadow” should be greater because to the attraction from the center of the Earth is added, albeit weakened, the attraction of the Moon and the Sun and the ocean level in point 1 should be lower than the low tide level in point 2, in fact it is almost the same as in point 3. How else can this be explained?
If we follow the hypothesis, we can assume that the heavy part of the Earth's core, following the Moon and the Sun, moves so far from the opposite edge of the Earth that the square of the distance makes itself felt and the force of attraction from the core on the surface weakens, which causes a tidal effect. In other words, the force of gravity at a point on the Earth depends not only on the position of the Moon and the Sun, but also on the subsequent center of mass of the Earth.
Fig.6. Forces acting on points on the Earth's surface are
with a displaced center.
Apparently, similar processes once occurred on the Moon. During the cooling process, heavy masses of internal matter were grouped mainly on the side of the planet facing the Earth, thus turning the Moon into a kind of “Vanka-Vstanka”, forcing it to turn towards us with the same heavy side.
This is also confirmed by the fact that previously, and this is known, it had a strong magnetic field, but now only a residual one.
Its former rotation is also indicated by the presence of meteorite craters on the entire surface, and not just on the side facing space.
Thus, the Earth's gravitational force not only keeps the Moon in the satellite's orbit, but also forces it to constantly rotate, and this wastes energy.
The movement of the Earth's core leads to heating of the internal structures of the planet, which, together with solar irradiation, makes it possible to maintain a temperature range on the surface of the planet suitable for the existence of known life forms. Solar energy alone would clearly not be enough. The fact that most satellites revolve around their planets with one side turned towards them, and the rotation of such planets as Venus and Mercury is synchronized with the movement of the Earth (these two planets turn towards it with one hemisphere when approaching the Earth), suggests that cosmic bodies interact with each other not as bodies with a uniform distribution of densities over the sphere, but as bodies with displaced centers of mass. Moreover, in the case of a liquid core, this center can move inside the solid shell of the planet.
The same mechanism can explain the reasons for the appearance of a dip in the gravity graph when the Sun passes across the sky - round-the-clock recording of gravimeter readings made it possible to establish the original geometric shape of the gravitational solar signal.
Figure 7. Behavior of gravitational forces during the day
It is recorded in the daytime in the form of a double-humped curve with a dip in the interval from 11 to 13 noon, i.e. then, when the Sun should most strongly attract the load of the gravimeter, a failure results. What plays a role here is that the heavy part of the core comes closer to the Earth’s surface and the distance to the measuring part of the gravimeter decreases, thereby quadratically increasing the force of attraction to the Earth, compensating for the force of gravity to the Sun.
10. Behavior of the Earth's core during a solar eclipse
In Fig. Figure 8 shows a graph of the behavior of tidal forces during a solar eclipse. Employees of the Institute of Automation and Electrometry of the SB RAS tried to detect the gravitational “shadow” of the Moon. According to some hypotheses of the behavior of gravity, it should have arisen. The shadow, as stated in the article, was not found, but the data shown on the graph is very interesting - if you compare it with the previous day, you can notice a delay in the growth of gravity by almost an hour!!! - which is unclear. But if we imagine that the masses of the Moon and the Sun have grouped together under the measurement point more significant masses of the inner core than on the previous day, then it becomes clear that the force of attraction from it will increase and at the moment of the eclipse will maximally compensate for the forces of attraction from the satellite and the luminary.
Figure 8. Results of measurements of tidal variations in gravity before and during solar eclipse 1981.
There are also clear increases in tidal values at night. Why is this possible, since both the Sun and the Moon are on the opposite side of the Earth?
Apparently, also from the displacement of the core closer to the opposite side of the planet, increasing its distance to the measurement point, these are precisely the tidal forces on the opposite side.
11. Earthquakes and continental movement
The mass of the core, subject to the influence of various, sometimes adding, sometimes subtracting, gravitational forces from the Sun, Moon and planets, moves along the “inner” surface of the Earth, constantly mixes, and encounters irregularities. At the same time, the inner part of the Earth's crust is constantly exposed to influence, which is transmitted to tectonic plates, causing them to gradually move, thereby moving the continents. But they really move in the latitudinal direction (East-West) and do not move in the longitudinal direction (South-North).
When a flow moves, a wave with a crest may appear as it creeps onto an internal unevenness, with further collapse, which can cause an earthquake.
Figure 9. Collapse of part of the core
Confirmation of this mechanism of earthquake occurrence is that most earthquake sources are located at the boundaries of lithospheric plates, at the site of geological irregularities. This phenomenon may be the cause of shifts in the surface layers of the mantle, leading to the appearance of additional sources of earthquakes and aftershocks.
Additionally, it should be noted that, as is known, magnetic storms on Earth are accompanied by low-frequency vibrations of the Earth's body and vice versa, earthquakes are accompanied electromagnetic radiation, i.e. these two phenomena are interconnected and this can also serve as confirmation of the hypothesis because jumps in electric charge (flow of charged substance) occur, and the transient process, as is known, has a wider spectrum than direct current.
And one more thing, the effect of a “lull” in seismic activity and electromagnetic background radiation before large earthquakes is known. This is how it is described in the works of the Malyshkovs (2009) “... on the eve of many earthquakes we discovered not an increase, but a decrease in the intensity of the fields. Depending on the energy of the upcoming earthquake, the reduced count of impulses lasted from several hours to several days, and was observed at night and in the afternoon, in the summer and winter months. If the fields increased, one could talk about the inclusion of additional sources arising at the source of the beginning of the destruction of rocks. The decrease in the flow of impulses was puzzling.”
Such an “accumulation” of the mass of charged matter in the nucleus, causing a lull, as we see, is quite explainable by the hypothesis.
And yet, according to eyewitnesses, during major earthquakes, a loud roar is heard, as if a huge avalanche is coming down, i.e. mass movements occur over certain extended distances.
The assumption of a collapse is also supported by the fact that, according to acoustic studies, the earthquake occurs almost simultaneously over a large extent of the Earth’s surface (up to 1000 km). Naturally, the collapse itself is much smaller and the increase in area is due to the expansion of the sphere and the multidirectionality of the seismic wave.
12. Time jumps and “Rogue Waves”
With the advent of new, more accurate means of measuring time, it was noticed that at times the course of astronomical (sidereal) time changes abruptly relative to the standard atomic ones; this happens, as a rule, during large earthquakes - how can this be explained except by the influence on the Earth of forces turning it? at some angle? But we do not observe external forces of such power; internal forces remain.
It is quite possible that when the core acts on the internal “irregularity”, the core “pushes” the main body of the planet, knocking down the astronomical clock relative to the stable reference ones.
Sailors know such a natural phenomenon as the “Rogue Wave”. (Rogue waves, monster waves, white wave, English rogue wave - robber wave, freak wave - crazy wave, freak wave; French onde scelerate - villain wave, galejade - bad joke, practical joke).
Just 10-15 years ago, scientists considered sailors’ stories about gigantic killer waves that appear out of nowhere and sink ships as just maritime folklore.
The existence of swells 20-30 meters high in the ocean contradicted the laws of physics and did not fit into any mathematical model of the occurrence of waves. It should be noted that these waves arise against the background of a relatively calm water surface; they can be either a crest or a trough, single or a packet.
The proposed hypothesis can quite logically explain the mechanism of their appearance by the same interactions of the moving core and internal irregularities of the planet’s body, which are transmitted to the surface of the ocean.
13. Movement of magnetic poles
If the hypothesis is correct, then it turns out that the outer shell of the Earth is weakly connected with the processes occurring between the planets, causing the appearance of a magnetic field, and therefore can “freely” move relative to the center of mass (similar to the rotation of the outer rim of a bearing, with the inner one fixed), while changing position magnetic poles on the surface of the Earth, but without changing in space. In this case, the position of the outer sphere of the Earth depends on the forces of interaction between the magnetic and gravitational fields of the core and the magnetic properties and shape of the sphere itself, which may well be influenced by human activity. The displacement occurs before the mantle settles into one of the local stability points. This doesn't have to be a complete polarity reversal.
14. Conclusion
The presented hypothesis of the interaction of planetary bodies and the physics of MP is confirmed by the properties of all terrestrial planets of the Solar System, without exception.
The proposed mechanism opens up new opportunities in the study of phenomena occurring on and inside planets. Although complex, but explainable cyclical processes are much easier to predict and interpret.
When preparing materials for this article, a lot of literature related to this topic was studied and I was always struck by the fact that there was a huge presence of mathematics in the complete absence of the concept of the physics of the processes taking place.
A small digression from the topic, “mathematics” is a very useful tool for describing and predicting physical processes that works on a certain, limited range of input parameters. The use of mathematics without taking into account physics leads to a significant distortion of the idea of reality. Nature did not know mathematics when creating this world; people invented it for their convenience.
Naturally, this hypothesis requires further work to confirm and expand the understanding of the processes taking place, as well as the development mathematical apparatus, taking into account many parameters influencing the behavior of planets, many of which are unknown to this day.
Sincerely, Vladimir Danilov, E-mail
© Danilov Vladimir,
for online publication Vladimir Kalanov,
website "Knowledge is power"
Preparation for publication: Vladimir Kalanov.
Brightest planet
Venus has a magnetic field that is known to be incredibly weak. Scientists are still not sure why this is so. The planet is known in astronomy as Earth's twin.
It has the same size and approximately the same distance from the Sun. It is also the only other planet in the inner Solar System that has a significant atmosphere. However, the absence of a strong magnetosphere indicates significant differences between Earth and Venus.
General structure of the planet
Venus, like all the other inner planets of the solar system, is rocky.
Scientists don't know much about the formation of these planets, but based on data obtained from space probes, they have made some guesses. We know that there have been collisions of iron- and silicate-rich planetasimals within the solar system. These collisions created young planets, with liquid cores and fragile young crusts made of silicates. However, the big mystery lies in the development of the iron core.
We know that one of the reasons for the formation of the Earth's strong magnetic field is that the iron core works like a dynamo machine.
Why doesn't Venus have a magnetic field?
This magnetic field protects our planet from strong solar radiation. However, this does not happen on Venus and there are several hypotheses to explain this. Firstly, its core has completely hardened. The Earth's core is still partially molten and this allows it to produce a magnetic field. Another theory is that this is due to the fact that the planet does not have plate tectonics like Earth.
When spacecraft examined it, they discovered that the magnetic field of Venus exists and is several times weaker than that of the Earth, however, it deflects solar radiation.
Scientists now believe that the field is actually the result of Venus's ionosphere interacting with the solar wind. This means that the planet has an induced magnetic field. However, this is a matter for future missions to confirm.
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Magnetic shields of planets. On the diversity of sources of magnetospheres in the solar system
- Popular Science,
- Cosmonautics,
- Astronomy
6 out of 8 planets in the solar system have their own sources of magnetic fields that can deflect streams of charged particles from the solar wind. The volume of space around the planet within which the solar wind deviates from its trajectory is called the planet’s magnetosphere. Despite the commonality of the physical principles of magnetic field generation, the sources of magnetism, in turn, vary greatly among different groups of planets in our star system.
The study of the diversity of magnetic fields is interesting because the presence of a magnetosphere is presumably an important condition for the emergence of life on a planet or its natural satellite.
Iron and stone
For terrestrial planets, strong magnetic fields are the exception rather than the rule. Our planet has the most powerful magnetosphere in this group. The solid core of the Earth supposedly consists of an iron-nickel alloy heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. This energy is transferred by convection in the liquid outer core into the silicate mantle (). Thermal convective processes in the metallic outer core were until recently considered the main source of the geomagnetic dynamo. However, research recent years refute this hypothesis.
Interaction of the magnetosphere of a planet (in this case, the Earth) with the solar wind. Streams of solar wind deform the magnetospheres of planets, which have the appearance of a highly elongated magnetic “tail” directed in the direction opposite to the Sun. Jupiter's magnetic tail stretches for more than 600 million km.
Presumably, the source of magnetism during the existence of our planet could be a complex combination of various mechanisms for generating a magnetic field: the primary initialization of the field from an ancient collision with a planetoid; non-thermal convection of various phases of iron and nickel in the outer core; releasing magnesium oxide from the cooling outer core; tidal influence of the Moon and Sun, etc.
The bowels of the “sister” of the Earth, Venus, practically do not generate a magnetic field. Scientists are still debating the reasons for the lack of a dynamo effect. Some blame the slow daily rotation of the planet for this, while others argue that this should have been enough to generate a magnetic field. Most likely, the matter is in the internal structure of the planet, different from the earth’s ().
It is worth mentioning that Venus has a so-called induced magnetosphere, created by the interaction of the solar wind and the planet’s ionosphere
Mars is closest (if not identical) to Earth in terms of sidereal day length. The planet rotates around its axis in 24 hours, just like the two giant “colleagues” described above, it consists of silicates and a quarter of the iron-nickel core. However, Mars is an order of magnitude lighter than Earth, and, according to scientists, its core cooled relatively quickly, so the planet does not have a dynamo generator.
Internal structure of iron silicate planets of the terrestrial group
Paradoxically, the second planet in the terrestrial group that can “boast” of its own magnetosphere is Mercury - the smallest and lightest of all four planets. Its proximity to the Sun predetermined the specific conditions under which the planet formed. So, unlike the other planets of the group, Mercury has an extremely high relative proportion of iron to the mass of the entire planet - on average 70%. Its orbit has the strongest eccentricity (the ratio of the point of the orbit closest to the Sun to the most distant) among all the planets in the solar system. This fact, as well as the proximity of Mercury to the Sun, enhances the tidal influence on the iron core of the planet.
Diagram of Mercury's magnetosphere with a superimposed graph of magnetic induction
Scientific data obtained by spacecraft suggest that the magnetic field is generated by the movement of metal in the core of Mercury, molten by the tidal forces of the Sun. The magnetic moment of this field is 100 times weaker than the Earth's, and its dimensions are comparable to the size of the Earth, not least due to the strong influence of the solar wind.
Magnetic fields of the Earth and giant planets. The red line is the axis of daily rotation of the planets (2 - the inclination of the magnetic field poles to this axis). The blue line is the equator of the planets (1 - the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic plane). Magnetic fields are represented in yellow (3 - magnetic field induction, 4 - radius of magnetospheres in the radii of the corresponding planets)
Metal giants
The giant planets Jupiter and Saturn have large rock cores with a mass of 3-10 Earth's, surrounded by powerful gas shells, which account for the vast majority of the mass of the planets. However, these planets have extremely large and powerful magnetospheres, and their existence cannot be explained only by the dynamo effect in the rocky cores. And it is doubtful that, with such colossal pressure, phenomena similar to those occurring in the Earth’s core are even possible there.The key to the solution lies in the hydrogen-helium shell of the planets itself. Mathematical models show that in the depths of these planets hydrogen from gaseous state gradually transforms into the state of a superfluid and superconducting liquid - metallic hydrogen. It is called metallic because at such pressure values hydrogen exhibits the properties of metals.
Internal structure of Jupiter and Saturn
Jupiter and Saturn, as is typical for giant planets, retained in their depths a large amount of thermal energy that accumulated during the formation of the planets. Convection of metallic hydrogen transfers this energy into the gaseous shell of the planets, determining the climate in the atmospheres of the giants (Jupiter emits twice as much energy into space as it receives from the Sun). Convection in metallic hydrogen, combined with the rapid daily rotation of Jupiter and Saturn, presumably form the powerful magnetospheres of the planets.
At the magnetic poles of Jupiter, as well as at the similar poles of the other giants and the Earth, the solar wind causes “polar” auroras. In the case of Jupiter, its magnetic field is significantly influenced by such large satellites as Ganymede and Io (a trace of streams of charged particles “flowing” from the corresponding satellites to the magnetic poles of the planet is visible). Studying Jupiter's magnetic field is the main task of the Juno automatic station operating in its orbit. Understanding the origin and structure of the magnetospheres of the giant planets can enrich our knowledge of the Earth's magnetic field
Ice generators
The ice giants Uranus and Neptune are so similar in size and mass that they can be called the second pair of twins in our system, after Earth and Venus. Their powerful magnetic fields occupy an intermediate position between the magnetic fields of the gas giants and the Earth. However, here too nature “decided” to be original. The pressure in the rock-iron cores of these planets is still too high for a dynamo effect like Earth's, but not enough to form a layer of metallic hydrogen. The planet's core is surrounded by a thick layer of ice made from a mixture of ammonia, methane and water. This "ice" is actually an extremely heated liquid that does not boil solely due to the enormous pressure of the planets' atmospheres.
Internal structure of Uranus and Neptune
In nature, four forces play a leading role:
- nuclear force that holds protons and neutrons in the nucleus of atoms
- atomic force that holds particles and atoms together
- gravity.
- electromagnetic force, electricity and magnetism.
However, if everything is clear with the first three, the importance of magnetism is often underestimated. Simply because we do not feel magnetism in ordinary life, we do not feel magnetic fields, and even the most powerful magnet does not have any effect on us. In other words, we don't even think about it.
But in fact, magnetism plays a role in our lives. huge role. Let's say you knew that the only thing that stops people from walking through walls or falling through floors is magnetic field? Most likely they didn’t know. Why does this happen?
Molecules and atoms are incredibly small, and the distance between atoms is incredibly wide. If we were reduced to the size of atoms, we would find that the space around us seemed to consist of continuous emptiness.
The distance between the electrons that orbit the protons in the nucleus is also quite large. For example, imagine an “atomic fan”, where the electrons are the blades, and the core is the central part to which the blades are attached. When our “fan” is not working, you can freely push anything between the blades, but as soon as you turn it on, the rotating blades seem to merge into a solid circle. In other words, emptiness suddenly gains density!
This happens because electromagnetic attraction arises between negatively charged electrons and positively charged protons, and they begin to rotate. And when they rotate as fast as fan blades, the atoms begin to push everything away from themselves. That is, we see the same picture - due to magnetism, the “atomic void” suddenly acquires density, and the mass of atoms connected together begins to behave like solid. That's why we can't get through the wall.
In other words, the density of matter, its tangibility, is created not by the atoms themselves from which this matter consists, but by the magnetic field.
One can imagine magnetic field lines like lanes on a motorway. Although they lie next to each other, they never intersect. Between them there seems to be a road dividing strip.
This analogy allows us to explain some of the processes occurring on the Sun. Imagine a highway that has a central lane for cars to travel in two directions at once. If there are no rules that regulate traffic in such a lane, then everyone will want to drive along this lane “in their own” direction, chaos will begin and a huge accident will definitely happen.
Now imagine that this highway is on the Sun, and the length of the accumulation of cars is 35 thousand kilometers. A colossal amount of burning material after such an “accident” will fly up and rush straight into space. This is it coronary mass ejection. Usually the ejection is gigantic in size, concentrating more than 10 billion tons of solar plasma. At the same time, coronary mass ejection is not a “local” phenomenon; its size is such that it poses a serious threat even to the inhabitants of the Earth.
But in addition to coronary emissions, the Sun constantly “pampers” us not only with flares, but also with constant radiation of infrared and X-rays, in other words, it’s quite strange why our “source of life” has not yet managed to kill us!
Fortunately for us, the Earth is quite well protected from cosmic adversities, and the nature of its protection is also based on the principles of magnetism. The globe itself is a huge magnet, due to which the Earth is surrounded by a powerful magnetic field, which, like a shield, protects us from the “pranks” of the Sun.
Magnetosphere- a gigantic magnetic field created by the rotating core of the planet. It extends over 70 thousand km. around the planet. Just as one magnetic ring of field lines repels another (that is, they never intersect), so The Earth's magnetosphere repels the magnetic plasma of the Sun.
Usually, billions of tons of hot and charged plasma hit our planet, but before reaching it, they fly away. Only a tiny part of the magnetic storm leaks through the small open space of the poles, and we can admire the aurora. Without the Earth's magnetosphere, dangerous radioactive particles would have long ago killed all forms of life on it. Fortunately, only beneficial solar waves - light and heat - pass through to us.
One might wonder how our magnetosphere protects us from coronal mass ejections but allows sunlight through. The thing is that coronary ejections are charged particles, and the magnetic field “catches” these electrical charges. Light has no electric charge, so it passes through the magnetic field as if nothing had happened.
But where do powerful ones come from? magnetic forces Earth? The answer can be given by one of the oldest and simplest magnetometers - a compass. Many people believe that the compass always points north, but this statement is not true. The compass points to the source of a powerful magnetic field, and in Earth's conditions, such a source will be none other than the north pole of the planet. Check it out yourself - place a powerful magnet next to the compass, and the needle will immediately turn from “north” towards it.
However, even if we accept the convention that the compass points to the north pole, this statement will still not be completely true. The compass points not to the geographic pole of the planet (the same northern one), but to magnetic north pole, compared to the geographical one, somewhat shifted to the side, and located in the very north of Canada.
A magnetic pole is not a magnet in itself. The magnetic field is created by forces deep inside our planet. Magnetic fields are generated by moving electrical currents, and the Earth is “one big flow.” The metal core of the planet also rotates and due to this, a magnetic field is generated.
The Earth's magnetic field is not a static, stable thing. It may change over time. Flows in the bowels of the Earth can change direction, which means the direction of the magnetic field will also change. The North and South poles can simply turn over, and this has already happened on our planet.
We know that the orientation of the Earth's magnetic poles changes every 100 thousand years. Deep-sea and glacial geology shows that for 780 thousand years the compass needle pointed south, and 50 thousand years before that the compass pointed north. The phenomenon of a sudden reversal of the poles is called magnetic inversion, and when it will happen next time, we are not yet able to say.
No one knows how a magnetic reversal will affect people's lives. Compasses will point south, bird migration will be disrupted, GPS navigation will be useless. But there may be more serious consequences. Changing geomagnetic poles can weaken or eliminate the magnetic field altogether. The problem is that a weak magnetic field will not protect us from the sun's deadly radiation.
Solar magnetism created by the movement of plasma across the surface of the Sun. Magnetism, as we recalled, is generated by moving currents electric charges. And the Sun, like the Earth, is one large endless stream of charged particles. From the Earth you can see one magnetic phenomenon - sunspots.
Any such spot is a magnetic vortex on the surface of the Sun; it is precisely such powerful magnetic vortices that cause solar flares. In fact, each flash is a gigantic thermonuclear explosion, far exceeding the power of all nuclear arsenals of earthlings.
The flares and the magnetic storms they cause are so powerful that they affect not only the Earth, but also neighboring planets. It’s not for nothing that they say that magnetic disturbances on the Sun create an atmosphere throughout our solar system and are called space weather.
X-rays are extremely dangerous to electronics and can cause billions of dollars in damage to communications and navigation satellites. Therefore, being able to predict “space weather” is a vital thing for space exploration.
In some ways, we already know how to predict particularly strong storms on the Sun. Giant coronal mass ejections occur every 11 years when sunspots, flares and other activity peak. However, it is impossible to accurately predict when a mass ejection will occur from any group of spots.
If the Earth has a magnetic field, do other planets have it? With the advent of space flight in the 60s, we were able to detect the magnetic fields of other planets, and these were amazing discoveries. All four giant planets have - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus And Neptune– there are active magnetic fields.
The most powerful magnetic field in our system is Jupiter. It is 10 times larger than Earth’s and stretches for 6 million km. around the planet. We observe auroras on Jupiter and Saturn and know that they appear there in the same way as on Earth - the magnetosphere of these planets deflects particles of the Sun to the poles and they glow there in the same way as on Earth.
But closer to the Sun, magnetic fields are less common. Mercury has a very weak magnetic field, only 1% of Earth's. Venus doesn't have it at all. But the most mysterious of all is the red planet Mars.
Late 90s spacecraft MarsGlobalSurveyor went into Mars orbit with a magnetometer, and it showed that there is no global magnetic field on Mars. But Surveyor discovered that low-power magnetic fields are scattered throughout the planet. NASA believes this fieldomagnetism, that is, the remnants of a magnetic field that existed billions of years ago. Did Mars have a magnetic field like Earth? If so, what happened to him?
Luckily, we don't have to go to the red planet to find out, because we already have a piece of the red planet. We have samples of rocks from Mars, these are meteorites knocked from its surface after an asteroid or comet impact millions of years ago. Examining one such stone, ALH84001, using a quantum microscope at the University of Massachusetts ( SQUIDmicroscope) showed that the stone is magnetized, and this magnetism is 4 billion years old. That is, under the surface of the meteorite there were traces of the former magnetosphere of Mars.
This gave us an unexpected discovery: at the beginning of history, Mars was completely different than it is now. The atmosphere was much denser, water probably flowed across the surface, and the temperature was much higher. In general, it looked like Earth. We don’t know what happened then, but approximately 4.1 billion years ago the planet’s magnetic field suddenly disappeared. Amazingly, this coincided in time with the beginning of the transformation of Mars from a warm and wet planet to the current dry and cold one.
One of the hypotheses why did the magnetic field disappear Mars suggests that it did not have a strong magnetosphere to protect it from cosmic radiation, and solar winds were blowing its atmosphere away from Mars. The atmosphere became thinner and thinner and then completely disappeared. Mars, figuratively speaking, died.
Could this happen on Earth? Yes. The bigger problem here is the inversion of the Earth's magnetic field, which we discussed above. During a geomagnetic inversion, the Earth may be left without the protection of the magnetosphere for several days or longer. And this could lead the planet to a Martian scenario, when we suddenly find ourselves completely defenseless against cosmic storms.
Magnetic storms have hit the Earth before. In 1989, a solar flare struck North America and left all of Quebec without electricity. But this storm was relatively weak compared to the events that took place in 1859 ( "Carrington Event") - then the aurora was seen even in the south of Cuba, and telegraph wires and transformers sparkled throughout the American continent.
What would happen if the storm of 1859 happened now? Gamma and x-rays would destroy almost all artificial satellites, induced current charges would pass through power lines, which would disable all electrical substations, and all electrical equipment connected to the network would instantly fail.
Water would have to be pumped in the old fashioned way, not with an electric pump, but manually, using a candle rather than a light bulb. In short, we would be back in pre-electric times. But developed world so accustomed and adapted to power grids that it is unlikely to be able to continue to exist.
To avoid such disasters, today scientists are trying to develop protection against such a storm - they are coming up with fuses for transformers at substations, trying to predict magnetic flares. But how effectively all this will work at “hour X”, only time will tell.
