There are two main types of sciences - natural, which study nature, and social, which study society and man. The main, fundamental natural sciences are physics, chemistry, biology. The main social sciences (also called social and humanities) study the main areas of social life: economics studies economic sphere people's lives; sociology - various social communities and types of relationships between people; theory of state and law, as well as political science - political and legal organization of society; cultural studies - the spiritual sphere of society. The most important place Historical science occupies a place in the system of social and human sciences, since all aspects of social life have a rich past and continuously change over time.

Philosophy occupies a special place in human knowledge: it seeks to understand the most general - ideological - questions of man's relationship to nature, society, history and culture.

The main goal of any science is to discover patterns in the sphere of reality it studies. Such patterns exist both in nature and in society. However, along with this common feature All sciences have differences between natural and social sciences, which are caused by differences in the laws of nature and society.

In the very general view a law is a certain repetition or regularity that is found in some sphere of reality. We constantly see such regularities around us. For example, day always follows night, stones fall when we let go of them, etc. Scientists establish more complex and subtle regularities and express them as laws of science as precisely as possible. While studying various sciences at school, you became acquainted with many such laws.

In what ways are social laws similar to the laws of nature, and how are they different from them? Some thinkers have said that social laws are more complex and harder to discover than natural laws. For example, the founder of sociology, Auguste Comte, compared social patterns with the laws of meteorology. Social phenomena, like atmospheric processes, are affected by a very large number of factors that intertwine and overlap each other. Therefore, the regularity of people's behavior in society is difficult to detect due to the many details and forces that act on them.

However, it should be noted that this cannot serve as a fundamental difference between social laws and the laws of nature. It cannot be assumed that in nature all processes proceed according to strict and precise laws that can be expressed in the form of mathematical formulas. This idea was typical of classical mechanics of the 17th-18th centuries, which viewed nature as a gigantic mechanism, like a clock, governed by precise and simple laws. But only a few natural systems similar to watches or other mechanisms. Indeed, our solar system is such a system, in which the planets move “like a clock.” But, for example, hurricanes or volcanic eruptions, also subject to physical laws, bear little resemblance to the operation of mechanisms. The natural world is governed not only by strict laws of mechanics, but also by probabilistic laws. On the other hand, many social processes are more natural than the movement of clouds or the vagaries of nature.

For example, in economics there are quite strict laws that, like the laws of nature, can be expressed in mathematical form.

It cannot be assumed that human life in society is arbitrary and chaotic. The life activity of people is influenced by fairly stable factors: the basic life needs of people, social customs and norms, legal laws, etc. In addition, biological factors and the natural environment influence social life. As a result of this, the actions of people and social groups become largely ordered and repeatable. And this serves as the source of the existence of stable social patterns.

These patterns reflect systematically reproduced relationships between individuals and various social groups. There are also patterns in the development of societies, for example, their transition from traditional type society to an industrial type. Very strict laws, as already mentioned, apply in the economic sphere.

Important and very common forms of expressing social patterns are typologies and classifications. Below you will find numerous examples of such typologies. In the social sciences, types of social groups and social actions, types of power and government regimes, types of economic systems and civilizations, etc. are established. Typologies and classifications make it possible to organize and express in a concise form numerous and diverse social phenomena. This also suggests that in the social world there is not chaos, but a certain order. Social typologies express this natural order, just as biological classifications or the periodic table express order in the living world or in the diversity of chemical elements.

So, both in nature and in society, phenomena and processes proceed more or less naturally. However, social laws have features that distinguish them from natural laws. The main differences are as follows:

• ? social laws describe and explain the activities of people as conscious beings. In the same situation, different people can perform different actions depending on their understanding of this situation, on volitional, moral decisions, etc. The laws of nature do not deal with consciousness;
• ? social laws are historical. Societies change, and laws change with them. For example, the laws of modern economic life are not suitable for describing the economic life of ancient societies and vice versa;
• ? social laws, due to the complexity and diversity of social factors, act rather as patterns and trends.

They can't be as precise as the law universal gravity. Therefore, these laws can rarely be expressed in mathematical form;

Social laws do not make it possible to unambiguously predict future phenomena. Astronomers, for example, can predict solar eclipses hundreds of years in advance. But society develops in such a way that there may be unexpected changes that direct its development along difficult to predict paths. For example, a hundred years ago, no one could have predicted that computers would appear, which would enter production and other spheres of people’s lives so widely that this would turn modern society into an information, post-industrial society.

Despite all these differences, social laws, like the laws of nature, are objective. They are not created consciously by individuals or social groups, such as legal laws. As a rule, people act in accordance with social laws without realizing it. That is why special social sciences are required, which make it possible to discover social patterns.

Knowledge of the laws of society is as necessary as knowledge of the laws of nature. This allows us to better understand the society in which we live, allows us to foresee and manage social processes to a certain extent, and also better understand the course of history.

Thus, we can say that there are stable trends and patterns in both nature and society. But the laws of society have noticeable differences from the laws of nature,

Security questions

• 1. We learn a lot already at the level of our ordinary common sense. How does science, as a specialized type of cognitive activity, differ from everyday experience?
• 2. Why advanced modern societies called "knowledge societies"?
• 3. An experiment is a specially designed “artificial” situation by a scientist in which certain phenomena are observed and measured. What are the difficulties of experimenting with people or animals?
• 4. Induction is a method of deducing patterns based on a generalization of many individual facts. Give examples of inductive inferences.
• 5. In which of the sciences studied at school is the deductive method most widely used?
• 6. To explain certain phenomena, scientists put forward hypotheses. But you can come up with many hypotheses. How do you choose the most suitable one? How does a hypothesis turn into a valid pattern?
• 7. How are social laws similar to the laws of nature?
• 8. We believe that the laws of motion of material bodies have operated at all times and are valid in all corners of the Universe. Why the effect of social laws can be limited in time and space, why modern laws may not be applicable to other historical eras and civilizations?
• 9. State Duma Russia is engaged in legislative activities, as a result of which many different laws are adopted. On the other hand, scientists - economists and sociologists - are trying to discover the laws according to which the socio-economic system functions and develops. How are these two types of laws different?

Social and humanitarian knowledge is knowledge of the peculiarities of the structure of society. Let's try to understand the specificity of such knowledge.

Nuances of social sciences and humanities

Currently, there is such a problem as the classification of social sciences and humanities. Some authors recommend dividing them into humanitarian and social disciplines. Others believe that such a division is inappropriate. Such differences in views became an excellent reason for the work of the Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge.

Feature of social sciences

They represent a detailed study of society, as well as all its existing spheres: legal, political, economic. In order to get acquainted with the features of this humanitarian direction, researchers are analyzing changes in the composition of the administration. Social sciences include jurisprudence, political science, history, philosophy, and economics.

Humanities

They include religious studies, cultural studies, psychology, and pedagogy. There are many similarities between the humanitarian and social disciplines, so this area is a special region of knowledge.

Signs

Since social and humanitarian knowledge is a separate knowledge, it must have certain characteristics. Among the features of the social sciences and humanities, we highlight the importance of taking into account the phenomenon of freedom. If (chemistry, biology, physics) are aimed at studying natural processes associated with living nature, then social and humanitarian knowledge is primarily the study of human activity in artistic, legal, and economic activities. Man's work does not happen, it is accomplished. If natural processes have no freedom, then human activity is completely independent. That is why social and humanitarian knowledge is a minimum of certainty, a maximum of hypotheticalness.

Features of social sciences and humanities

The specificity of this direction is that it is important to study subjective reality. If the object of study natural sciences are material objects, then humanists engage in research material systems, therefore, an analysis of objective reality. The social and humanitarian profile is associated with Since it is sovereign, that is, inherent in a particular subject, it is quite difficult to conduct research in this direction. For many people, the consciousness of a specific subject is inaccessible. They can only see external manifestations in the form of speech and actions that are controlled by consciousness. It is by these that others evaluate the interlocutor. But the problem is that underneath the outward decency there may well be either a real criminal or a very vulnerable person hidden.

Problems

The Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge also faces the problem of the ideality of consciousness. It does not have certain chemical and physical properties, for example, oxidation state, valence, nuclear charge. Its peculiarity is that it is ethereal, incorporeal. In essence, information is provided in an ideal form, regardless of the direct carrier - the brain. It is for these reasons that it is not possible to record consciousness using objective methods. A person’s feelings cannot be measured with a ruler, nor can they be determined with a dynamometer. A variety of medical and physical devices make it possible to record only physiological brain processes that are carriers of consciousness. For example, you can establish the frequency of excitation of nerve cells and their spatial structure. Consciousness is given to man as internal, subjective experiences. It cannot be determined by instruments, it can only be felt. Despite all the difficulties that exist in the study of human spirituality, they cannot be considered insurmountable. The social and humanitarian profile involves a detailed study of the speech and activities of people, gaining knowledge about the structure, composition, and functions of human consciousness.

Methods

The structure of social and humanitarian knowledge is impossible without the most important methods: empathy and translated from Latin language means introspection, studying a person’s personal spiritual life, analyzing one’s own experiences. It allows you to gain insight into your own consciousness. Without the existence of this method, a person would not be able to study it or manage it.

Empathy (translated from English language sounds like empathy) represents the penetration of one person into the inner world of another, the perception of other people's thoughts and feelings as their own personal qualities. When conducting research, the Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge pays special attention to identifying similar emotions in a group of like-minded people who have together endured some dangers and difficulties. Founded this method on sympathy, that is, internal disposition (empathy) for a person.

Sympathy

It can be considered an emotionally charged unconscious positive assessment of a person’s actions, based on the experience of communication. With its help, the commonality between different people. The specificity of social and humanitarian knowledge is that only it involves the use of empathy and introspection. When studying natural processes, such methods are not used.

Uniqueness of the studied objects

Possesses knowledge high degree uniqueness of the objects under consideration. They have a unique set of certain properties, which adds problems when creating a unified research system in the humanitarian field. If a physicist encounters only a few terms, a biologist with two pine trees, then a teacher or lawyer must work with two completely different people. Comparing the chemical reaction with the growth of birch and with economic reform, we note that various methods will be required to study them in detail. For technical and natural sciences, the use of an individual approach is not necessary, because the objects considered in these sciences are of the same type. The differences are mostly minor and can be overlooked. But a teacher, psychologist, lawyer does not have the opportunity to abstract from the characteristics of a person. The classification of social sciences and humanities is multifaceted, since there are many varieties in each science.

Explanation of social and humanitarian objects

To do this, it is necessary to establish the features of the manifestation of a certain law in a specific object. Otherwise, it will not be possible to fully explain the object or carry out practical actions with it. To identify an individual or social group the category of mentality is currently applied. Such research is much more difficult than studying the individual spiritual world of a person. Identifying mentality means identifying the unique from the individual, that is, selecting socio-psychological characteristics.

Study algorithm

The Institute of Social and Humanitarian Knowledge (Kazan) has been developing a sequence of actions aimed at studying the unique characteristics of a living subject for a long period of time. As a result, two main stages were identified:

• identification of signs of various subjects, as well as the degree of their severity;
• comparison of their different subjects, determination on this basis of specific characteristics, identification for each mentality.

If such a comparison is not made, we will talk about the study of personality, consciousness, but not about mentality. Psychologists and sociologists understand the importance of taking into account the laws of functioning of the objects under study. In the social and humanitarian sphere, static laws are applied. They have probabilistic causation; a cause can be generated by one of different actions. That is why all predictions in social science and humanities are approximate, but in technology and nature they are clear and accurate.

Among the features of the direction under consideration, we highlight the limited use of a full-fledged experiment in them. For example, when studying the history of a particular country, it is inappropriate to talk about an experiment, because the events have already happened. Research in sociology cannot be used to analyze interethnic relations. Experiments are also inappropriate when studying population migration. It is incorrect to deliberately relocate people, change their living conditions, wage levels, family composition in order to get some result. In addition, there are ethical restrictions for conducting research in the social sciences and humanities. Experiments that can harm people's health or humiliate are prohibited. human dignity, infringe on authority. Due to limited experience, the empirical base in this area will be less reliable than in technical disciplines. Social direction uses certain scientific criteria:

• rationality;
• evidence;
• experimental and practical verifiability;
• the ability to reproduce empirical material;
• essentiality.

The evidence base in the social and humanitarian cycle is less serious and rigorous than in the exact sciences. The reason is the insufficient number of theoretical provisions and established facts. Often, instead of laws, psychologists and teachers act intuitively to study certain objects.

Conclusion

In the humanitarian sphere, empirical testability involves the use of observations, interviews, questionnaires, and testing. Reproduction of facts is possible only if there are results of statistical research on the identified topic. If the experiment fails, evidence from several sources is considered an alternative. For example, in jurisprudence and pedagogy they use the testimony of participants in an event. All are complex multi-level hierarchically built systems. In order to fully study the systems, a significant period of time is required.

The German philosopher W. Dilthey said that the main criterion for distinguishing sciences of various types is the method used. It was the German scientist who proposed dividing all sciences into those that study the spirit and those that study the laws of nature. Not only the analysis of the person himself, but also acquaintance with texts and ancient manuscripts is widely used in the social and humanitarian cycle. Understanding and interpreting certain information helps psychologists, teachers, and lawyers to cope with the tasks assigned to them, first of all, to study the individual characteristics of each individual.

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In modern scientific knowledge, the following main types (forms) can be distinguished:

1) Knowledge of nature and the corresponding class of sciences (natural science).

2) Knowledge of man and science - Human knowledge or Humanities.

3) Knowledge of society – Social science (social sciences).

4) Knowledge of knowledge itself - epistemology and epistemology (studies the sources, methods and forms of scientific knowledge).

5) Knowledge of thinking - logic.

In the structure of modern scientific knowledge, the following classes of sciences are distinguished:

1) Logical and mathematical sciences;

2) Natural sciences;

3) Engineering and technical (technological);

4) Social sciences and humanities

Social sciences and humanities.

Two opposing approaches:

1) There are no social sciences - only humanities, because a person is an object.

2) There is no humanities science, only social sciences and humanities. Because a person in society!

The main goal of the block of social and human sciences is knowledge of man, knowledge of society, culture that serves this process.

Correlation of SGBV with natural scientific knowledge.

1) By their nature, natural science and humanitarian knowledge are identical, only the object is different (positivism). There is the concept of science and the structure of scientific knowledge, respectively, if SGBN is a discipline, then there are no special differences between SGBN and natural science.

2) These are generally incomparable things:

Naturalism: these sciences are different, but the methods and methods themselves are identical. The tools are the same.

Humanities: completely different, specific methods etc. What works in the natural sciences does not work in the social and humanities.

The specifics of any block of sciences are determined by the subject and object of study, but all sciences have something in common: the process of general methodology. General – general scientific methods, means and techniques (deduction, induction, analysis, synthesis). But each science has a specific picture of the world and specific means and methods of cognition.

Within the framework of the social and human sciences, we can conditionally distinguish a subtype of the humanities (philosophy, history, psychology, cultural studies, philology, etc.) and social sciences (economics, sociology, political science, jurisprudence, demography, ethnography, etc.)

In the social and humanities one can distinguish fundamental and applied scientific disciplines.

Fundamental:

Philosophy:

History of Philosophy;

Epistemology;

Social philosophy;

Aesthetics, etc.

Recent history;

Domestic history...

Economic:

Political economy;

History of economic thought;

Labor Economics.

Application:

Sociology – micro- and macrosociology.

Features of social sciences and humanities:

Society, unlike natural science, is an abstract object that cannot be isolated as in natural science. To highlight an object, some theory is used to delineate a person or society, since, for example, a person of the 17th and 19th centuries are different phenomena.

1) The problem of identifying the object and subject of science

The object is reality (a fragment of reality) or theory has a hand

A subject is a transformed object that is transformed based on the goals and means of research. A compressed object to the level of an object is what the nature of the object has been transformed into, and not a cut out piece, a mental construction.

2) Orientation of scientific research in the social sciences and humanities. The orientation says: the principle of historicism is an integral element of the social sciences and humanities; everything is considered only in movement, in dynamics!

3) When studying man and society, the researcher must focus on the nature of these phenomena, the corresponding language, way of life, forms of behavior, historical period of development, etc.

4) In the social and human sciences, the role of understanding is great as the comprehension of reality and as the study of the meaning embedded in reality. Hermeneutics studies the problem of understanding.

5) In the social and human sciences there is a specific set of methods, techniques, means, methods, approaches to the study of reality, which is united by the term methodology of the social and human sciences. At the same time, general scientific methods undergo purification and appropriate interpretation before their application in social and humanitarian knowledge.

Philosophical problems of social and humanitarian knowledge

1. What two levels of existence of social and humanitarian knowledge can be distinguished?

2. What is practical knowledge about social reality, and what are its forms?

3. When is theoretical knowledge about society and man formed? Why, at the beginning of their formation, do social sciences and humanities focus on the ideals and norms of natural science knowledge?

Knowledge about social and humanitarian reality exists in two forms - as knowledge of practical reason and as knowledge of theoretical reason.

At the level of practical reason, the social world is given to each person as a factor in his life, it is merged with his activities. In this case, the acting subject lives in this world, without needing to understand either the process of understanding this world itself, or what the world itself is. The world reveals its truth to him in the values ​​and ideas of culture, in the intuitions of everyday life, which are comprehended through the active person’s mastery of culture and life experience. As a result of practical knowledge, a change in the state of consciousness of the acting person occurs. In his consciousness, those knowledge, skills, norms, assessments, etc. that are necessary for real practical action (practical consciousness) are formed. It is in relation to practical reason that the words of F. Bacon “Knowledge is power” can be fully applied, for practical reason is that Atlas that holds the human world with its efforts.

At the level of theoretical reason, the social world becomes an object of scientific knowledge. Theoretical social and humanitarian knowledge, which is expressed about a person and about the forms of his life in concepts, arises when conceptual knowledge itself arises, but social and human sciences in the strict sense of the word appear much later. IN independent industry sciences, they were formalized in the 18th – 19th centuries, which was associated with two points. Firstly, with the fact that the rules and standards of rational thinking, formed in the field of natural science, are transferred to the field of knowledge about man and society. Secondly, with the fact that knowledge begins to be considered as a necessary condition for managing social phenomena and transforming them, which is what the technogenic civilization that is establishing itself at this time insists on.

The relationship between practical social and humanitarian knowledge and the theoretical version, on the one hand, and the relationship between natural science and social science, on the other hand, determined the development and nature of social and humanitarian knowledge in the history of European science.

In the first steps of development theoretical knowledge knowledge about nature and knowledge about man and society were not opposed or separated. Moreover, it is knowledge about values human life- about goodness, justice, courage, virtue, truth, etc. was the main subject of discussion in ancient philosophy, it was subordinated to the search for their meaning and content and the doctrine of being as such and thinking about the cosmos and nature. The very concepts of justice, goodness, beauty and other values ​​that define human life were derived by philosophers from reflection on everyday ideas and were conceptual representations of the meanings of practical consciousness. And although Greek philosophy declared “practical reason” to be doxa—opinion, not truth—the “theoretical reason” itself of ancient philosophy, in its statements about social reality, remained within the boundaries of rationalized public opinion.

The formation of science of the modern type, which begins in the Renaissance and ends in the Enlightenment, leads, first of all, to the development of the cycle of natural science and the establishment of rationality, which involves the separation of the object and subject of knowledge, the rejection of any transfer of subjective characteristics to the object of knowledge, the presentation of the object of knowledge as transparent to the rational explanations, recognition of the universality of the knowing subject (wherever and whoever performs an act of scientific knowledge, he realizes the action of the universal theoretical mind). The world for the mind exists only as the action of causes and effects, the manifestation of objective laws. Newtonian mechanics became the standard of scientific knowledge, revealing to man, as it seemed then, all the secrets of the Universe and, together with other sciences, giving unlimited opportunities to use the forces of nature in one’s own interests.

This ideology of knowledge is also transferred to the sciences, which make man and his life the subject of their interest. The author of the word “sociology” O. Comte, creating a science of society in the image and likeness of physics and social dynamics, seeks in social life the action of laws known to mechanics - the law of inertia, the law of equality of action and reaction, the law of the formation of a single general movement from private multidirectional movements, etc. Society for sociology becomes the same object as nature for a natural scientist, objective in relation to him and independent of his knowledge.

Orientation social cognition on ideals and norms scientific research, established in the system of natural science, undoubtedly contributed to the constitution of social science as a section of scientific knowledge. Such principles of scientific research as terminological accuracy, consistency of theoretical provisions, logical and empirical validity of provisions, differences in facts and their interpretation have become mandatory in the study of the social world.

Although the sciences of society and man must have all the attributes of scientific rationality, their method of rational comprehension cannot be identical to the rationality of natural science.

Social cognition deals with an object that is not separated from the cognizing subject, and the cognizing subject is not indifferent to the cognizable object. Therefore, the requirements for the separation of object and subject in the process of cognition as one of the main requirements of classical rationality cannot be consistently met. Society as a subject of knowledge includes the science of itself as its constituent element, and therefore neither social science can declare its third-party position, nor society can remain indifferent to the results of knowledge.

This initial connection of the knower with the knowable, which is clearly expressed in the experiences and assessments of practical reason, in theoretical knowledge manifests itself in the fact that, as the German philosopher W. Dilthey showed in the 19th century, knowledge of social phenomena requires not only knowledge (explanation), but and understanding.

Since social reality is made up of the actions of people, and the actions of people are conscious, the consciousness of the acting people should also be reproduced in the course of the study. Consciousness cannot be known as an object; it can only be understood by another consciousness.

((Descartes also distinguished between “extended substance”, which is known in spatial coordinates, i.e. through external interaction, and “thinking substance”, which knows itself, its intuitions, its truths and the ability to think, understanding itself.))

Understanding requires different procedures and methods than explanation based on the principle of cause-and-effect relationships and relationships.

The inclusion of understanding in humanitarian knowledge singled out the sciences of the spirit into a special group of sciences, distinct from the sciences of nature. Thus, in the philosophy of science, a dichotomy between the sciences of the spirit (the science of culture) and the sciences of nature appeared, and along with this the problem of the methodology of social cognition.

The problem of the methodology of humanitarian knowledge.

1. How does socio-humanitarian knowledge differ from knowledge of the natural science type? Why should knowledge about the human world not only carry within itself knowledge of existence, but also concern for it? How can one terminologically express the peculiarity of socio-humanitarian knowledge?

3. What is the relevance of social knowledge. Why is social knowledge transitory (historical)?

4. What is idiographicity as a feature of social knowledge?

5. Using the example of science and economics, show how the main characteristics of social knowledge are manifested?

The problem of the methodology of social cognition, which arose in connection with the distinction between the sciences of the spirit and the sciences of nature, turned out to be more capacious and broader than just a discussion of the specifics of cognition of the reality of human life.

The neo-Kantians of the Baden School, W. Windelband and G. Rickert, showed that it is necessary to distinguish sciences not by subjects, but by method and special cognitive goals. Windelband identified sciences that are aimed at finding general laws, calling them nomothetic (nomos - ancient Greek law, nomothetics - legislative art), and sciences that describe individual, unique events, calling them idiographic (idios - ancient Greek special). Rickert, continuing the ideas of his teacher, speaks of sciences based on individualizing thinking. Both nomothetic and idiographic can be both mental sciences and natural sciences. Thus, in the natural sciences, which are, first of all, nomothetic sciences, there is geology, geography, etc., which describe specific situations, and in the spiritual sciences, which are primarily represented by idiographic sciences, there is sociology, economics etc., which are aimed at discovering laws and generalizations.

The introduction of the concept of idiographic (individualizing) method confronted science with the problem of theoretical description of the individual. Until now, generalizing thinking has reigned supreme in science, for which an individual object had the meaning of an example of the general and nothing more. Now individualizing thinking had to make the individual itself universally significant, since science deals with the generally significant, and not with individual examples. But in this case, the general must become the individual. How to combine these opposites? In the concept of neo-Kantianism, an individual event acquired universal significance (and at the same time the possibility of scientific judgment about it) thanks to a special procedure - attribution to value. Through reference to a universally significant value random event, which could not have a rational explanation, became, according to Rickert, accessible to thought. Events and objects identified in this way acquired a universally significant certainty for their uniqueness. They became significant without losing their uniqueness. For neo-Kantians, as for Dilthey, the participation of value in the process of cognition turned out to be a determining factor in humanitarian knowledge.

Thus, the main feature of socio-humanitarian knowledge is its “biased” attitude towards being. Knowledge receives humanitarian potential when it not only describes being and reveals its characteristics as eternal, constant and unchanging laws of being, but when it shows respect for the existence of an object, when it knows and takes into account the fragility and uniqueness of being, when it knows what can be damage has been caused to life. And not only knowledge about human reality, but also knowledge about purely natural phenomena, for example, environmental knowledge, can have such potential.

Therefore, humanitarian knowledge is the kind of knowledge that reacts to the possibility of a change in being, moreover, to the possibility of the disappearance (death) of the being that it knows, to the possibility of non-existence. And in this way it differs from knowledge in the classical sense, which knows a concrete being or being as such. The knowledge of existence, as it was formed in ancient culture, was called episteme. It is this kind of knowledge, oriented towards the general and the law, that appears as a result of generalization. We can identify a number of essential characteristics of socio-humanitarian knowledge, expressing an idiographic vision of the world and always maintaining a connection with the state of consciousness of the cognizing consciousness.

Social knowledge is axiological in nature, value-oriented. It not only carries information about the object, but also about the subject of cognition, expressing either his attitude towards the cognizable object or fixing his position. When a sociologist builds a “theory of deviant (deviant) behavior,” then the very term “deviant behavior” speaks about the researcher’s attitude to this type of behavior and the goals of the study. When an esthetician studies the beautiful, and an ethicist talks about the good and the ought, they cannot help but understand that the beautiful is beautiful, and the ought gives rise to duty.

The value element enters social knowledge through understanding. Knowledge-understanding arises if the subject has prepared himself for its appearance. Understanding grows from life situation, in which the subject is immersed and with which he is loaded.

Since understanding is necessarily included in humanitarian knowledge, hermeneutics becomes an important methodological support for the sciences about the realities of human life. The experience of hermeneutics is useful for humanistics to overcome the limitations of the traditional theory of knowledge, which recognized only the abstract subject. The social world is learned by a person for whom this world is vitally important.

The second essential characteristic of social knowledge is that it has relevance, and at the same time historicity.

Social knowledge is included in action, in an act, this makes it relevant and effective. It not only knows its object, it influences it, changing it, and thereby changing the basis of its existence. Social and humanitarian knowledge is both knowledge and construction of reality. This is completely obvious at the level of practical consciousness. But this is also typical for the theoretical level of social knowledge, although in this case the moment of construction is not so obvious.

The third feature of socio-humanitarian knowledge is its focus on the individual. This knowledge is individualizing, that is, it reveals not only what is common in events or situations, but also their peculiarity, difference and dissimilarity. Attribution to a universally significant value gave universal significance to the individual, and the value was revealed to the understanding given to practical consciousness initially.

The truth of socio-humanitarian knowledge

1. What two meanings does the concept of truth have? Why is this important for understanding the truth of social cognition?

2. How does the relevance of social knowledge affect its truth?

If humanitarian knowledge is axiological (value-oriented), historical (changeable) and focused on the individual, unique, then can we talk about the truth of this knowledge?

The pursuit of truth is the regulative ideal of scientific knowledge. Already at the dawn of the formation of theoretical knowledge, Parmenides declared that the path of thinking is the path to truth, not opinion. Since then, serving the truth has become the calling of science. And Pilate’s question “What is truth?” became the center of development European culture. It contains two different, although interconnected, meanings.

He asks, firstly, what is true what can be called truth, what statement or matter can receive the status of truth, i.e. the concept of truth is clarified. Secondly, he asks about What there is truth What can be considered true What no, i.e. in this case the concept of truth is clear, but it is not clear whether This or That be attributed to the truth.

The classical definition of truth goes back to Aristotle, who defined truth as such a characteristic of knowledge, the content of which corresponds to reality. This concept of truth has entered into use in science and everyday consciousness. It is called the correspondence concept of truth - that which corresponds to something real is true.

The development of mathematics, mathematical physics, and other sciences with a developed formal apparatus leads to the dissemination in the twentieth century of a coherent (interconnected) concept of truth, which interprets truth as the consistency of knowledge to a certain system of theoretical concepts, the consistency of knowledge with each other. But in both cases of understanding truth, it is recognized as objective, that is, the true content of knowledge should not depend on the position of the knowing subject.

Can humanitarian knowledge, which includes a value element in its content, be true in this case?

Objectivity in this case is achieved not by the fact that the researcher should exclude any assessments, but by the fact that he must critically understand his position and control his assessments. Scientific social knowledge differs from practical social knowledge given to every active person in that he knows his foundations - not only methodological foundations (methods, logic, language of science), but also existential foundations (initial social and cultural positions). Therefore, social knowledge by its nature must be critical knowledge, that is, it consciously relates to its premises and is based on a critical methodology.

It is possible to formulate two methodological principles that ensure the universality and objectivity of humanitarian knowledge.

Firstly, the principle of reflection of the position of knowledge - the researcher must realize and record his initial position, within the framework of which only his knowledge is valid.

Secondly, the principle of tolerance - since different social positions, to the extent that there are necessarily different angles of theoretical understanding of social processes, therefore humanitarian knowledge must be tolerant in a situation of pluralism of concepts.

The relevance of social knowledge also affects the nature of its truth. Both noted concepts of truth abstract from time - the adequacy or consistency of truth does not depend on time. Therefore, the truths of science are always considered as eternal truths. True, within the framework of some theories of truth, for example, in the correspondence theory of truth, which was developed in Marxist philosophy, the concept of relative truth is introduced, which changes with the development of cognition and a more accurate comprehension of the object, but the lifetime of the object does not in any way affect the content of truth. When we're talking about about socio-humanitarian knowledge, time becomes a direct participant in knowledge and directly affects the truth of humanitarian knowledge. It is in this case that the second meaning of Pilate’s question is revealed - what is truth? What is truth, what is true for this reality? For this time.

A person acts in the social world, or adapting to it, then he is interested in how he Now, or changing it, then he is interested in what he is must be. In both cases, truth is a function of time, where truth is not knowledge, which corresponds things (event, reality), and knowledge appropriate things (events, reality), the one that should be, the one that is relevant for the present.

In the relevance of the truth of humanitarian knowledge, the openness of being to man reveals itself, the revelation of being, the penetration into being that is revealed here - and - now. Therefore, M. Bakhtin rightly stated: “The criterion here is not the accuracy of knowledge, but the depth of penetration. Here knowledge is aimed at the individual. This is the area of ​​discoveries, revelations, recognitions, messages.”

The orientation of humanitarian knowledge towards the individual also affects the characteristics of the truth of humanitarian knowledge. What does the truth of knowledge mean regarding individuality? This may mean whether a particular event has been correctly recreated. For example, historical event. In this case, the truth of historical knowledge (historical reconstruction) is verified by the authenticity of the documents on the basis of which the reconstruction is carried out. This may also mean whether theoretical statements about the essence of individuality as such are correct. For example, personalities. In this case, the truth of theoretical constructions is verified by understanding those rules, algorithms, principles of affirmation of the individual principle in being, which are considered by this theory. Understanding means acceptance or rejection of these rules as possible rules of one’s own existence. Any scientific knowledge about a sociocultural phenomenon (action, work, personality, specific event, etc.) reveals truth through the rooting of its content in the thinking experience of the researcher. This is rooting, locking knowledge to life experience thinking man says that the truth of humanitarian knowledge is not only a characteristic of theoretical positions (statements, judgments), but acts as a characteristic of human existence itself. It can be “true” or “untrue”, “genuine” or “inauthentic”, “truthful (righteous) or untruthful (unrighteous). The truth of humanitarian knowledge is its ability to become reality.

Here the temporal (temporal) nature of humanitarian truth is once again confirmed. The truth of comprehension of the individual exists as truth-in-the-present, truth that is revealed as the possibility of human action, the possibility of affirming a definitely (clear to him) life.

Descartes, defining truth, says that truth is a clear and distinct representation of the mind, that it is the intuition of the mind, which shines with the natural light of the mind, which belongs to the mind by its nature (by its nature). If we paraphrase this thought of Descartes, we could say that the truth of humanitarian knowledge is a statement about life/affirmation of life, clear and obvious to a person by his natural inclination to life.

Social and humanitarian knowledge and practice

1. What is the difference between the classical and non-classical types of social and humanitarian knowledge?

2. What does social and humanitarian knowledge see as its pragmatic purpose?

Classical science separated the object and the subject and gave the subject the power of reason and action, with the help of which he could do with the object whatever was beneficial to him, of course, relying on the laws of the object he knew. This was the “cunning of reason,” as Hegel defined it. In relation to the social sciences, the classical paradigm of cognition proceeded from the fact that the social world has a universal order, which is accessible to universal rationality, and therefore social sciences can and should become an instrument for transforming society in accordance with a rationally developed project. Knowledge of the laws of society and history makes it possible to manage society and history. This cognitive and projective attitude was most fully represented in the Marxist philosophy of society, in which the project of modernity - the construction of the “kingdom of reason” - found its logical conclusion.

The paradox of this purpose of social cognition is that, while recognizing the power of reason and man, social science considered the specific person himself only as a “cog” in the social machine and does not see him either as an active force or as a specific goal of all social transformations.

As a result of the application of such knowledge to the reconstruction of society, totalitarian systems arose, which, for the sake of universal freedom, subjected a particular person to necessity. And the result of applying such knowledge to the reorganization of nature was total environmental disasters.

Of course, classical science has played and continues to play an important role in the development of technogenic civilization. The approach to economic and social situations as objective situations has given and continues to give various social institutions the opportunity to effectively organize their activities. Without a feasibility study, it is not possible to implement a single significant project in modern production. But the very development of technogenic civilization, which owes its existence to classical science, showed the limitations of its scientific origins. The view of existence as an absolutely objective existence in relation to man, which does not depend on him, does not presuppose him and exists without him, leads to the emergence of a world of things, technology, the social world, which are also abstracted from man, do not presuppose him, although they were created for him. Crises and dead ends in the development of technogenic civilization have forced us to take a new look at existence itself, especially at the existence of man himself.

For non-classical social science there is no single and completely comprehensive picture of the social world, there is no single omniscient subject who knows the ultimate truth of life, there is not even any scientific concept complete in its definition, the horizon of its meaning is always open. In this situation, the humanities lose their instrumentality and cease to be “social engineering”, but become more of a criticism of those meanings and meanings that permeate social reality and which have entered the practical consciousness of the acting person.

Knowledge of phronema, which is the result of modern humanitarian knowledge, forms “comprehensive-reflective thinking”, and not “calculating-calculating thinking” (M. Heidegger).

Therefore, the pragmatic meaning of modern socio-humanitarian science is to awaken the thoughts of an active person: it does not teach, does not give projects, it puts a person in a situation of thought, since it opens up various possible boundaries for him. The boundaries of meanings, actions, situations, or, speaking in philosophical language, opens up the possibility of overcoming non-existence.

The paradox of the knowledge that humanities must build is that this knowledge must have all the signs of knowledge-episteme, i.e. be reproducible, general, specific, etc., but at the moment of its use (application, understanding) it turns into knowledge-phronema, that is, it becomes a state of mind, a way of thinking of living historical concreteness.

TO philosophical foundations Humanities/ //Collected. cit.: in 7 volumes. T.5., M., 1996.P.7.

Descartes R. Selected works M, 1953.P.86.

Social cognition is carried out by a group of sciences called social (economic theory, sociology, political science, law, etc.). Sometimes they are classified as humanities, equating the names “social” and “humanities.” For example: “The humanities are social sciences, history, philosophy, philology and others, not natural or technical.” From this definition we can conclude that knowledge about society (social knowledge) is humanitarian knowledge. However, there is a narrower understanding of humanitarian knowledge as knowledge about the humanistic-personal in man. With this understanding, the social sciences and humanities are to the extent that they consider the subjective factor of social development - a person as an individual, as a bearer of individual qualities.

Social sciences strive to identify objective laws that express essential, universal and necessary connections between the phenomena of processes. Social knowledge as a product of these sciences is, first of all, knowledge about relatively stable and systematically reproduced relationships between peoples, classes, socio-demographic and professional groups, etc. For example, economic theory reveals a stable connection, on the one hand, between the relationship between supply and demand in the market , and on the other hand, the price of the product; sociology reveals recurring significant connections between demographic processes and socio-economic development; political science reveals natural connections between politics and the interests of classes, nations and other subjects of socio-political life, etc., since social laws, unlike the laws of nature, are implemented through the activities of people.

and it is carried out under different conditions. Social laws operate as a tendency, and not as constants.

Social knowledge also has other features generated by the specifics of social cognition (this was discussed above).

If a representative of the social sciences - a historian, sociologist, philosopher - turns to the facts, laws, dependencies of the socio-historical process, the result of his research is social knowledge. If he considers the human world, goals and motives of activity, his spiritual values, personal perception of the world, his scientific result humanitarian knowledge stands out. When a historian takes into account social trends in the progressive development of mankind, he functions as a social scientist, and when he studies individual personal factors, he acts as a humanist. Thus, social and humanitarian knowledge are interpenetrating. There is no society without a person. But there is no man without society. A deserted story would seem strange. But without studying natural processes, without explaining historical development, it would not be a science. Philosophy relates to humanitarian knowledge insofar as it is addressed to spiritual world person.

The humanist considers reality in terms of goals, motives, and human orientation. His task is to understand her thoughts, motives, intentions. Understanding is one of the features of humanitarian knowledge. Referring to the texts of letters and public speaking, diaries and policy statements, works of art and critical reviews, philosophical works and journalistic articles, a humanist strives to understand the meaning that the author put into them. This is possible only by considering the text in the context of the environment in which its creator lived, in connection with his life world.

Understanding a text cannot be as rigorous as explaining objective social connections. On the contrary, possible interpretations of the text are not necessary, the only correct, undoubted, but which have the right to exist. Moreover, today's audiences are filled with Shakespeare's plays with a different content than that perceived by the playwright's contemporaries. Therefore, humanities knowledge does not have the accuracy of natural and technical sciences; it actively uses mathematical calculations.

The possibility of providing texts with different meanings, a significant number of random relationships, the impossibility of reducing knowledge to unambiguous, universally accepted definitions do not devalue humanitarian knowledge. On the contrary, such knowledge addressed to inner world of a person, is capable of influencing her, spiritualizing her, transforming her moral, ideological, ideological guidelines, and promoting the development in a person of all his human qualities.

Social sciences, which provide social and humanitarian knowledge, help a person to comprehend himself, to find the “human dimension” of natural and social processes. They contribute to the formation of a way of thinking and acting of a person who knows society and understands other people who know how to live in modern world with its diversity of cultures and lifestyles, overcoming its own selfishness, is aware of the consequences of its activities.

Basic Concepts

Social cognition. It is the historical approach. Social fact.

Interpretation of a social fact. Social science. Humanities.

Self-test questions

1. How does knowledge of society differ from knowledge of nature?

2. What explains difficulties in social cognition?

3. What opportunities does the concrete historical approach open up in social cognition?

4. What is a social fact? How is a social fact interpreted?

b. How is a social fact assessed?

6. How does social and humanitarian knowledge differ from natural science?

1. Scientists often repeat the expression: “There is no abstract truth, truth is always concrete.” How do you understand it? Which proposition can be considered true: “The most effective army is one based on universal conscription” or “The most effective is a professional army”?

2. Among social scientists there are different points of view on the possibilities of social cognition. One is that science is called upon to describe facts as accurately as possible, but it cannot interpret them, because explanations and assessments are always free.

The other proceeds from the fact that the description of a fact cannot be accurate, because complete data can never be collected, and also because different researchers highlight different signs of an event as significant, so everything depends on the interpretation of the fact. The third is that the investigator may approach the truth by conscientiously examining the facts in their connection and reasonable explanation, but must refrain from making an assessment because it distorts the true picture of the incident.

Do you agree with any of these judgments? Give arguments for and against individual judgments and illustrate with an example.

3. Formulate questions that need to be answered in order to implement a specific historical approach when studying the reform of 1861 in the Russian Empire.

4. Can you agree with the statement: “The monarchy played social development negative role"? Give reasons for your answer.