A. Death penalty for violating religious laws (20:1-6)

Lion. 20:1-6. What is said here about the worship of Molech develops what is said in 18:21. The prohibition of necromancy (20:6) was also discussed at 19:31.

b. Call to Holiness (20:7-8)

Lion. 20:7-8. Even here, while enumerating capital crimes, God, in His mercy, continued to call for the observance of moral standards within the framework of the covenant, citing His own holiness.

V. Punishment by death for violating family laws (20:9-21)

Lion. 20:9-21. Regarding the death penalty for malicious disobedience to parents, it is also said in Ex. 21:17. Text in Lev. 20:10-17 is practically parallel to the text in 18:6-23, but is “added” with the requirement of punishment for sinners (and the prohibition of intercourse with a woman during her menstruation; judging by 15:19-20, this may not be about the husband In the cases listed in 20:20-21, God's punishment was provided for - infertility; perhaps the same is implied in verse 19.

d. Call to Holiness (20:22-26)

Lion. 20:22-26. The call and warning in verses 22-24 are the same as in 18:24-30. The addition is in the call to distinguish between clean and unclean (20:25), which in theological understanding is associated with the fact that God separated Israel from other nations (verse 24, 26), and it was necessary for him to be holy because God is holy (verse 26).

e. On sin against religious institutions, punishable by death (20:27)

Lion. 20:27. Verse 6 and 19:31.

Commentary on the book

Comment to the section

20 This new section deals with punishments, and from this point of view the instructions already given are repeated.

In the book. Leviticus sets forth regulations regarding sacrifices, priesthood, festivals, and prophecies regarding the destinies of Israel. In the detailed rituals of the OT, Christian interpreters saw the preparation and prototypes of the atoning sacrifice of Christ (cf. Heb 8-10) and the sacraments of the Church. The single sacrifice of Christ made the ritual meaningless ancient temple, but the requirements of purity and holiness in the work of serving God remain in force to this day.

Titles, divisions and contents

The first five books of the Bible form one whole, which in Hebrew is called the Torah, i.e. Law. The first reliable evidence of the use of the word Law (Greek “νομος”) in this sense is found in the preface of the book. Wisdom of Jesus, son of Sirach. At the beginning of the Christian era, the name “Law” was already common, as we see in the NT (Luke 10:26; cf. Luke 24:44). Jews who spoke Hebrew also called the first part of the Bible “Five-fifths of the Law,” which corresponded in Hellenized Jewish circles to η πεντατευχος (subtitle “βιβλος” ., i.e. Five Volumes). This division into five books is attested even before our era by the Greek translation of the Bible by seventy interpreters (LXX). In this translation, accepted by the Church, each of the five books was given a title according to its content or the content of its first chapters:

Book Genesis (properly - a book about the origin of the world, the human race and the chosen people); Exodus (begins with the story of the departure of the Jews from Egypt); Leviticus (law for priests from the tribe of Levi); Numbers (the book begins with a description of the census of the people: Ch. Numbers 1-4); Deuteronomy (“the second law”, reproducing in a more extensive presentation the Law given at Sinai). The Jews still call every book Hebrews. The Bible according to its first significant word.

Book Genesis is divided into two unequal parts: a description of the origin of the world and man (Genesis 1-11) and the history of the forefathers of the people of God (Genesis 12-50). The first part is like a propylaea, introducing the story that the whole Bible tells about. It describes the creation of the world and man, the Fall and its consequences, the gradual corruption of people and the punishment that befell them. The race descended from Noah then spread throughout the earth. The genealogical tables are increasingly narrowed and, finally, limited to the family of Abraham, the father of the chosen people. The history of the forefathers (Gen. 12-50) describes the events in the life of the great ancestors: Abraham, a man of faith, whose obedience is rewarded: God promises him numerous descendants and the Holy Land, which will become their inheritance (Gen. 12 1-25:8); Jacob, distinguished by cunning: posing as his older brother, Esau, he receives the blessing of his father Isaac and then surpasses his uncle Laban in resourcefulness; but his dexterity would have been in vain if God had not preferred him to Esau and renewed in his favor the promises made to Abraham and the covenant made with him (Gen. 25:19-36:43). God chooses people not only of a high moral level, for He can heal every person who opens up to Him, no matter how sinful he may be. Compared to Abraham and Jacob, Isaac looks rather pale. His life is spoken of mainly in connection with his father or son. The twelve sons of Jacob are the ancestors of the twelve tribes of Israel. The last part of the book is dedicated to one of them. Genesis: ch. Genesis 37-50 - biography of Joseph. They describe how the virtue of the wise is rewarded and Divine Providence turns evil into good (Gen. 50:20).

The two main themes of the Exodus: the liberation from Egypt (Exodus 1:1-15:21) and the Sinai Covenant-Covenant (Exodus 19:1-40:38) are associated with less significant topic- wanderings in the wilderness (Exodus 15:22-18:27). Moses, who received the revelation of the ineffable name of Yahweh on the mountain of God Horeb, leads the Israelites there, freed from slavery. In a magnificent theophany, God enters into a union with the people and gives them His Commandments. As soon as the alliance was concluded, the people violated it by worshiping the golden calf, but God forgives the culprits and renews the alliance. A number of regulations govern worship in the desert.

Book Leviticus is almost exclusively legislative in nature, so that the narrative of events can be said to be interrupted. It contains the ritual of sacrifices (Lev 1-7): the ceremony of ordaining Aaron and his sons as priests (Lev 8-10); regulations regarding clean and unclean (Lev 11-15), ending with a description of the ritual of the Day of Atonement (Lev 16); "The Law of Holiness" (Lev 17-26), containing the liturgical calendar and ending with blessings and curses (Lev 26). In ch. Lev 27 specifies the terms of the ransom of people, animals and property dedicated to Yahweh.

In the book. Numbers again speaks of wandering in the desert. The departure from Sinai is preceded by a census of the people (Numbers 1-4) and rich offerings on the occasion of the consecration of the tabernacle (Numbers 7). Having celebrated Passover for the second time, the Jews leave the holy mountain (Numbers 9-10) and reach Kadesh, where they make an unsuccessful attempt to penetrate Canaan from the south (Numbers 11-14). After a long stay in Kadesh, they go to the plains of Moab, adjacent to Jericho (Numbers 20-25). The Midianites are defeated, and the tribes of Gad and Reuben settle in Transjordan (Numbers 31-32). In ch. Number 33 lists the stops in the desert. The narratives alternate with regulations supplementing the Sinaitic legislation or preparing the settlement in Canaan.

Deuteronomy has a special structure: it is a code of civil and religious laws (Deut. 12:26-15:1), included in the great speech of Moses (Deut. 5-11; Deut. 26:16-28:68), which is preceded by his first speech (Deut. 1-4); it is followed by a third speech (Deut. 29-30); finally the mission is entrusted to Jesus Novinus, the song and blessings of Moses are given, brief information about the end of his life (Deut. 31-34).

The Code of Deuteronomy partially reproduces the commandments given in the wilderness. Moses recalls in his speeches the great events of the Exodus, the revelation at Sinai and the beginning of the conquest of the Promised Land. They reveal the religious meaning of events, emphasize the significance of the Law, and contain a call to loyalty to God.

Literary composition

The composition of this extensive collection was attributed to Moses, as attested in the NT (John 1:45; John 5:45-47; Rom 10:5). But in more ancient sources there is no statement that the entire Pentateuch was written by Moses. When it says, although very rarely, “Moses wrote,” these words refer only to a specific place. Biblical scholars have found differences in style, repetition, and some inconsistency in the narratives in these books, which prevent them from being considered the work of a single author. After much searching, biblical scholars, mainly under the influence of C.G. Count and J. Wellhausen, leaned mainly towards the so-called. documentary theory, which can be schematically formulated as follows: The Pentateuch is a compilation of four documents that arose at different times and in different environments. Initially there were two narratives: in the first the author, the so-called. The Yahwist, conventionally designated by the letter “J,” uses in the story of the creation of the world the name Yahweh, which God revealed to Moses; another author, so-called Elohist (E), calls God by the name Elohim, common at that time. According to this theory, the Yagvist's narrative was written down in the 11th century in Judea, while the Elohist wrote a little later in Israel. After the destruction of the Northern Kingdom, both documents were brought together (JE). After the reign of Josiah (640-609) Deuteronomy “D” was added to them, and after the Captivity (JED) the priestly code (P) was added, containing mainly laws and several narratives. This code formed a kind of backbone and formed the framework of this compilation (JEDP). This literary-critical approach is associated with the evolutionary concept of the development of religious ideas in Israel.

Already in 1906, the Pontifical Biblical Commission warned exegetes against overestimating this so-called. documentary theory and invited them to consider the authentic authorship of Moses, if we mean the Pentateuch as a whole, and at the same time recognize the possibility of existence, on the one hand oral traditions and written documents that arose before Moses, and on the other hand, changes and additions in a later era. In a letter dated January 16, 1948, addressed to Cardinal Suard, Archbishop of Paris, the Commission recognized the existence of sources and gradual additions to the laws of Moses and historical accounts due to the social and religious institutions of later times.

Time has confirmed the correctness of these views of the Biblical Commission, for in our time the classical documentary theory is increasingly being called into question. On the one hand, attempts to systematize it did not produce the desired results. On the other hand, experience has shown that focusing interest on the purely literary problem of dating the final edition of the text is of much less importance than the historical approach, in which the first place is given to the question of the oral and written sources underlying the “documents” being studied. The idea of ​​them has now become less bookish, closer to concrete reality. It turned out that they arose in the distant past. New archaeological data and the study of the history of ancient civilizations of the Mediterranean have shown that many of the laws and regulations spoken of in the Pentateuch are similar to the laws and regulations of eras older than those to which the Pentateuch was compiled, and that many of its narratives reflect the life of an older period. environment.

Not being able to trace how the Pentateuch was formed and how several traditions merged in it, we, however, have the right to assert that despite the diversity of the Yavistic and Elohist texts, they are essentially talking about the same thing. Both traditions have common origin. In addition, these traditions correspond not to the conditions of the era when they were finally recorded in writing, but to the era when the events described occurred. Their origin, therefore, goes back to the era of the formation of the people of Israel. The same can be said to a certain extent about the legislative parts of the Pentateuch: before us is the civil and religious law of Israel; it evolved along with the community whose life it regulated, but in its origin it goes back to the time of the emergence of this people. So, the fundamental principles of the Pentateuch, the main elements of the traditions merged with it, and the core of its legalizations belong to the period of formation of the Israeli people. This period is dominated by the image of Moses as an organizer, religious leader and first legislator. The traditions completed by him and the memories of the events that took place under his leadership became a national epic. The teachings of Moses left an indelible imprint on the faith and life of the people. The Law of Moses became the norm for his behavior. Interpretations of the Law caused by the course historical development, were imbued with his spirit and relied on his authority. The fact of the written activity of Moses himself and his entourage, attested in the Bible, is beyond doubt, but the question of content has higher value than a matter of recording the text in writing, which is why it is so important to recognize that the traditions underlying the Pentateuch go back to Moses as the original source.

Narratives and history

From these legends, which were the living heritage of the people, inspired in them the consciousness of unity and supported their faith, it is impossible to demand the strictly scientific accuracy to which the modern scientist strives; however, it cannot be said that these written monuments do not contain the truth.

The first eleven chapters of Genesis require special consideration. They are described in style folk tale origin of the human race. They present simply and picturesquely, in accordance with the mental level of an ancient uncultured people, the main truths underlying the economy of salvation: God’s creation of the world at the dawn of time, the subsequent creation of man, the unity of the human race, the sin of the first parents and the subsequent exile and trials. These truths, being the subject of faith, are confirmed by the authority of Holy Scripture; at the same time they are facts, and as reliable truths imply the reality of these facts. In this sense, the first chapters of Genesis are historical in nature. The history of the forefathers is a family history. It contains memories of our ancestors: Abraham, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph. It is also a popular story. The narrators go into detail personal life, on picturesque episodes, without caring about connecting them with general history. Finally, this is a religious story. All its turning points are marked by the personal participation of God, and everything in it is presented in a providential plan. Moreover, the facts are presented, explained and grouped in order to prove a religious thesis: there is one God who formed one people and gave them one country. This God is Yahweh, this nation is Israel, this country is the Holy Land. But at the same time, these stories are historical in the sense that they, in their own way, narrate real facts and give a correct picture of the origin and migration of the ancestors of Israel, their geographical and ethnic roots, their behavior in moral and religious terms. A skeptical attitude towards these stories turned out to be untenable in the face of recent discoveries in the field of history and archeology of the ancient East.

Omitting a rather long period of history, Exodus and Numbers, and to a certain extent Deuteronomy, set out the events from the birth to the death of Moses: the exodus from Egypt, a stop at Sinai, the path to Kadesh (silence is kept about the long stay there), the transition through Transjordan and the temporary settlement on the plains of Moab. If we deny the historical reality of these facts and the personality of Moses, it is impossible to explain the further history of Israel, its loyalty to Yahwism, its attachment to the Law. It must be recognized, however, that the significance of these memories for the life of the people and the echo that they find in the rituals gave these stories the character of victory songs (for example, about the crossing of the Red Sea), and sometimes even liturgical chants. It was during this era that Israel became a people and entered the arena of world history. And although no ancient document yet mentions him (with the exception of an unclear indication on the stele of Pharaoh Merneptah), what is said about him in the Bible is consistent in general terms with what the texts and archeology say about the invasion of Egypt by the Hyksos, who in the majority were of Semitic origin, about the Egyptian administration in the Nile Delta, about the political situation in Transjordan.

The task of the modern historian is to compare these biblical data with the relevant events world history. Despite the insufficiency of biblical indications and the insufficient certainty of extra-biblical chronology, there is reason to assume that Abraham lived in Canaan approximately 1850 years BC, that the story of the rise of Joseph in Egypt and the arrival of the other sons of Jacob dates back to the beginning of the 17th century. BC The date of the Exodus can be determined quite accurately from the crucial indication given in the ancient text Exodus 1:11: the people of the children of Israel "built for Pharaoh Pithom and Rameses cities for stores." Consequently, the Exodus occurred under Ramses II, who, as is known, founded the city of Ramses. Grandiose construction work began in the first years of his reign. Therefore, it is very likely that the departure of the Jews from Egypt under the leadership of Moses took place around the middle of the reign of Ramses (1290-1224), i.e. approximately around 1250 BC.

Considering the biblical legend that the time of the Jews’ wanderings in the desert corresponded to the period of life of one generation, the settlement in Transjordan can be dated back to 1225 BC. These dates are consistent with historical data about the stay of the pharaohs of the 19th dynasty in the Nile Delta, about the weakening of Egyptian control over Syria and Palestine at the end of the reign of Ramses II, about the unrest that swept the entire Middle East at the end of the 13th century. BC They also agree with archaeological data indicating the beginning of the Iron Age during the Israeli invasion of Canaan.

Legislation

In the Hebrew Bible the Pentateuch is called “Torah”, i.e. Law; and indeed here are collected the prescriptions that regulated the moral, social and religious life of the people of God. What strikes us most about this legislation is its religious character. It is also characteristic of some other codes of the ancient East, but in none of them is there such an interpenetration of religious and secular elements. In Israel, the Law was given by God Himself, it regulates duties towards Him, its regulations are motivated by religious principles. This seems quite normal when it comes to the moral precepts of the Decalogue (Sinai Commandments) or the cult laws of the book. Leviticus, but it is much more significant that in the same code civil and criminal laws are intertwined with religious instructions and that the whole is presented as a Charter of Union-Covenant with Yahweh. It naturally follows from this that the presentation of these laws is connected with the narration of events in the desert where this Union was concluded.

As you know, laws are written for practical application and they need to be modified over time, taking into account the peculiarities environment and historical situation. This explains that in the totality of the documents under consideration one can find both ancient elements and regulations that indicate the emergence of new problems. On the other hand, Israel was to a certain extent influenced by its neighbors. Some of the injunctions of the Book of the Covenant and Deuteronomy are strikingly reminiscent of the injunctions of the Mesopotamian Codes, the Assyrian Law Code, and the Hittite Code. It's about not about direct borrowing, but about similarity, explained by the influence of the legislation of other countries and customary law, which in part became in ancient times the common property of the entire Middle East. In addition, in the post-Exodus period, the formulation of laws and forms of worship were heavily influenced by Canaanite influence.

The Decalogue (10 Commandments), inscribed on the Sinai Tablets, establishes the basis of the moral and religious faith of the Covenant Union. It is given in two (Ex 20:2-17 and Deut 5:6-21), slightly different versions: these two texts go back to the older, shorter form and there is no serious evidence to refute its origin from Moses.

The Elohist Code of the Covenant-Union (Exodus 20:22-23:19) represents the right of a pastoral-agricultural society, corresponding to the real situation of Israel, which was formed as a people and began to lead a sedentary lifestyle. It differs from the more ancient Mesopotamian codes, with which it has points of contact, in its great simplicity and archaic features. However, it has been preserved in a form that shows some evolution: the special attention paid to draft animals, work in the fields and vineyards, as well as houses, suggests that it belongs to the period of sedentary life. On the other hand, the difference in the wording of the regulations - sometimes imperative, sometimes conditional - indicates the heterogeneity of the composition of the code. In its present form it probably dates back to the period of the Judges.

The Yahwist Code of Covenant Renewal (Exodus 34:14-26) is sometimes called, incorrectly, the second Decalogue or the ritual Decalogue. It is a collection of religious precepts in imperative form and belongs to the same period as the book of the Testament, but has been revised under the influence of Deuteronomy. Although the book Leviticus received its completed form only after the captivity; it also contains very ancient elements. So, for example, prohibitions regarding food (Lev 11), or regulations on cleanliness (Lev 13-15) preserve what was bequeathed by the primitive era. In the ritual of the great Day of Atonement (Lev 16), the texts of ancient ritual instructions are supplemented by more detailed instructions, indicating the presence of a developed concept of sin. Ch. Lev 17-26 form a whole which is called the Law of Holiness and apparently refers to last period monarchy. The code of Deuteronomy must be attributed to the same era, which contains many ancient elements, but also reflects the evolution of social and religious customs (for example, the laws on the unity of the sanctuary, the altar, tithes, slaves) and the change in the spirit of the times (appeals to the heart and inherent in many regulations admonishing tone).

Religious meaning

The religion of both the Old and New Testaments is historical religion: it is based on the revelation of God to certain people, in certain places, under certain circumstances, and on the special action of God at certain points in human evolution. The Pentateuch, which sets out the history of God's original dealings with the world, is the foundation of the religion of Israel, its canonical book par excellence, its Law.

The Israeli finds in it an explanation of his fate. At the beginning of the book of Genesis, he not only received an answer to the questions that every person asks himself - about the world and life, about suffering and death - but he also received an answer to his personal question: why is Yahweh, the One God, the God of Israel? Why is Israel His people among all the nations of the earth?

This is because Israel received the promise. The Pentateuch is a book of promises: after the Fall, Adam and Eve are proclaimed salvation in the future, the so-called. Proto-Gospel; Noah, after the flood, is promised new order in the world. Even more characteristic is the promise, given to Abraham and renewed to Isaac and Jacob; it extends to all the people who will come from them. This promise directly refers to the possession of the land where the forefathers dwelt, the Promised Land, but in essence it contains more: it means that a special, exclusive relationship exists between Israel and the God of her forefathers.

Yahweh called Abraham, and in this call the election of Israel was foreshadowed. Yahweh himself made it into one people. His people according to His good pleasure, according to the plan of love, destined at the creation of the world and carried out, despite the unfaithfulness of people. This promise and this election are guaranteed by the Union. The Pentateuch is also a book of alliances. The first, though not yet directly stated, was concluded with Adam; the union with Noah, with Abraham and, ultimately, with all the people through the mediation of Moses, has already received clear expression. This is not a union between equals, for God does not need it, although the initiative belongs to Him. However, He enters into an alliance and, in a certain sense, binds Himself to the promises He has given. But He demands in return that His people be faithful to Him: Israel's refusal, its sin, can break the bond created by the love of God. The terms of this fidelity are determined by God Himself. God gives His Law to His chosen people. This Law establishes what his duties are, how he must behave in accordance with the will of God and, while preserving the Union-Covenant, prepare for the fulfillment of the promise.

The themes of promise, election, union and law run like a red thread through the entire fabric of the Pentateuch, through the entire OT. The Pentateuch in itself does not constitute a complete whole: it speaks of a promise, but not of its fulfillment, for the narrative is interrupted before Israel enters the Promised Land. It must remain open to the future both as hope and as a restraining principle: the hope of the promise, which the conquest of Canaan seemed to fulfill (Joshua 23), but which sins long compromised, and which the exiles in Babylon remember; the restraining principle of the Law, ever exacting, abiding in Israel as a witness against him (Deut. 31:26). This continued until the coming of Christ, towards whom the entire history of salvation gravitated; in Him she found all her meaning. Ap. Paul reveals its meaning primarily in Galatians (Gal. 3:15-29). Christ concludes a new Union-Covenant, prefigured by ancient treaties, and introduces Christians into it, the heirs of Abraham by faith. The law was given to keep the promises, being a teacher to Christ, in whom these promises are fulfilled.

The Christian is no longer under the guidance of a schoolmaster, he is freed from observing the ritual Law of Moses, but not freed from the need to follow its moral and religious teachings. After all, Christ came not to break the Law, but to fulfill it (Matthew 5:17). The New Testament is not opposed to the Old, but continues it. In the great events of the era of the patriarchs and Moses, in the holidays and rites of the desert (the sacrifice of Isaac, the crossing of the Red Sea, the celebration of Easter, etc.), the Church not only recognized the prototypes of the New Testament (the sacrifices of Christ, baptism and the Christian Passover), but also requires a Christian with the same deep approach to them that the instructions and stories of the Pentateuch prescribed for the Israelites. He should realize how the history of Israel (and in it and through it all mankind) develops when man leaves God to lead historical events. Moreover: in its path to God, every soul goes through the same stages of detachment, testing, purification through which the chosen people passed, and finds edification in the teachings given to them.

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Commentary on the book

Comment to the section

10-21 Criminal punishment for crimes against chastity and for various indecencies, which were discussed in the 18th chapter. Namely: the death penalty is imposed on both participants in adultery (v. 10; cf. 18:20 ) and sodomy (v. 13; cf. 18:22 ), fornication with stepmother (12) and daughter-in-law (11). Execution (usually stoning, cf. Joshua 7:15,25) was aggravated by being burned by fire for cohabiting with a mother and daughter: all three were killed and burned (v. 14). Bestiality was punishable by death not only for humans, but also for animals. On the contrary, the sin of unchastity in other cases, apparently, is not punishable by execution, but is submitted to the judgment of God - punishment by childlessness, premature death and the like.

The third book of the Pentateuch, called in Heb. text, like other parts of the Pentateuch, according to the first word “Vaykra” (vajikra - “and called”), in Jewish tradition it is called, according to the content, “Torat-kohanim” - “the law of the priests”, or “Torat-qorbanot” - the law of the victims . Equally Greek name(in LXX) the book Λευϊτικ ò ν, Latin Leviticus, Slavic-Russian “Leviticus” shows that the content of the book consists of the Old Testament cult related to the duties of the holy tribe of Levi: sacrifices, religious-ritual cleansings, holidays, theocratic taxes, etc. The book of Leviticus has almost exclusively legislative content, being almost completely devoid of a narrative-historical element: throughout its entire length, only two facts are reported, moreover, having no significant connection with the entire content of the entire book, facts (the death of Nadab and Abihu after the dedication of the high priest and priests, Lev 10 :1-3, and the execution of a blasphemer, Lev 24:10-23); however, the rest of the content of the book forms a detailed development and direct continuation of the articles and regulations of the law set out in the 2nd part of the book. Exodus; Everywhere the legislation of the book of Leviticus appears to be the development and completion of the revelation announced from Sinai (25, 26, 46; 27, 34). Main idea or the purpose of the book (expressed especially clearly in Lev 24:11-12) is to form from Israel the society of the Lord, which would stand in close gracious and moral communion with Jehovah. Those in the book serve this purpose. Leviticus decrees: 1) about sacrifices (chap. 1-7); 2) on the ordination of clergy (chap. 8-10); 3) about clean and unclean (chap. 11-16); 4) about the personal holiness of members of the Lord’s society in family and social life (chap. 17-20); 5) about the holiness and order of all worship, sacred times, etc. (chap. 21-27). Thus the idea of ​​holiness and sanctification is the dominant idea of ​​the book of Leviticus, permeating all the designated divisions, connected both historically or chronologically, and logically, by the development of the same principle.

; Isa 5:24; Matthew 7:12; Matthew 11:13; Luke 2:22 etc.).

But the rabbis already from the time ancient times there was another, somewhat peculiar designation for this “Torah” (law), as “five-fifths of the law,” which simultaneously proves both the unity of the Pentateuch and its composition of five different parts. This five-part division, apparently, was finally determined by the era of the translation of the LXX translators, where it already received full recognition.

Our modern word"Pentateuch" is a literal translation of the Greek - πεντάτευκος from πέντε - "five" and τευ̃κος - "volume of the book". This division is quite accurate, since, indeed, each of the five volumes of the Pentateuch has its own differences and corresponds to different periods of theocratic legislation. So, for example, the first volume is, as it were, a historical introduction to it, and the last serves as an obvious repetition of the law; the three intermediate volumes contain the gradual development of theocracy, timed to certain historical facts, and the middle of these three books (Leviticus), differing sharply from the previous and subsequent ones (almost complete absence of the historical part), is an excellent line separating them.

All five parts of the Pentateuch have now received the meaning of special books and have their own names, which in the Hebrew Bible depend on their initial words, and in Greek, Latin and Slavic-Russian - from the main subject of their content.

The Book of Genesis contains a narrative about the origin of the world and man, a universal introduction to the history of mankind, the election and education of the Jewish people in the person of its patriarchs - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob. Book The Exodus tells at length about the exit of the Jews from Egypt and the granting of the Sinai legislation. Book Leviticus is especially devoted to the exposition of this law in all its particulars that are most closely related to worship and the Levites. Book Numbers gives the history of wanderings in the desert and the number of Jews who were counted at that time. Finally, the book. Deuteronomy contains a repetition of the Law of Moses.

According to the capital importance of the Pentateuch of St. Gregory of Nyssa called it the true “ocean of theology.” Indeed, it represents the main foundation of the entire Old Testament, on which all its other books rest. Serving as the basis of Old Testament history, the Pentateuch is the basis of New Testament history, since it reveals to us the plan of the divine economy of our salvation. That is why Christ himself said that He came to fulfill and not to destroy the law and the prophets ( Matthew 5:17). In the Old Testament, the Pentateuch occupies exactly the same position as the Gospel in the New.

The authenticity and integrity of the Pentateuch is evidenced by a number of external and internal evidence, which we will only briefly mention here.

Moses, first of all, could write the Pentateuch, since he, even according to the most extreme skeptics, had an extensive mind and high education; Consequently, and regardless of inspiration, Moses was fully capable of preserving and transmitting the very legislation of which he was the mediator.

Another compelling argument for the authenticity of the Pentateuch is the universal tradition, which has been continuous for a number of centuries, starting with the book of Joshua ( Joshua 1:7.8; Joshua 8:31; Joshua 23:6 etc.), going through all the other books and ending with the testimony of the Lord Jesus Christ himself ( Mark 10:5; Matthew 19:7; Luke 24:27; John 5:45-46), unanimously asserts that the writer of the Pentateuch was the prophet Moses. The testimony of the Samaritan Pentateuch and ancient Egyptian monuments should also be added here.

Finally, the Pentateuch retains clear traces of its authenticity within itself. Both in terms of ideas and style, all the pages of the Pentateuch bear the stamp of Moses: unity of plan, harmony of parts, majestic simplicity of style, presence of archaisms, excellent knowledge Ancient Egypt- all this speaks so strongly that the Pentateuch belonged to Moses that it leaves no room for honest doubt. For more on this, see Vigouroux. A Guide to Reading and Studying the Bible. Transl. priest Vl. You. Vorontsova. T. I, p. 277 et seq. Moscow, 1897.

Punishments determined for those who violate these commandments and prohibitions.

1 . And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying:

2 . Speak this unto the children of Israel: Whosoever of the children of Israel, and of the strangers that dwell among the Israelites, giveth of his children to Molech, shall surely be put to death: the people of the land shall stone him; Lion. 18:21, 2 Kings 23:10

3 . And I will set My face against that man and will destroy him from among his people, because he gave of his children to Molech, to defile My sanctuary and dishonor holy name My;

4 . And if the people of the earth do not turn their eyes on that man when he gives one of his children to Molech, and does not put him to death,

5 . Then I will set my face against that man and against his generation, and I will destroy him from among his people, and all those who follow in his steps as a harlot, to walk as a harlot after Molech.

6 . And if any soul turns to those who call the dead and to magicians to walk after them fornication, then I will turn My face against that soul and will destroy it from among its people. Lion. 19:31

7 . Sanctify yourselves and be holy, for I the Lord your God am holy. Lion. 11:44, Lev. 19:2, 1 Pet. 1:15-16

8 . Keep My statutes and do them, for I am the Lord who sanctifies you.

9 . Whoever curses his father or his mother shall be put to death; He reviled his father and his mother: his blood is on him. Ref. 21:17, Prov. 20:20, Mat. 15:4, Mar. 7:10

10 . If anyone commits adultery with his married wife, if anyone commits adultery with his neighbor’s wife, both the adulterer and the adulteress shall be put to death. Deut. 22:22, John. 8:4-5

11 . Whoever lies with his father's wife has revealed his father's nakedness: they both shall be put to death, their blood be on them. Life 35:22

12 . If anyone lies with his daughter-in-law, then both of them will be put to death: they have committed an abomination, their blood is on them. Life 38:16, 1 Cor. 6:9

13 . If anyone lies with a man as with a woman, then both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death, their blood be on them. Lion. 18:22, Rom. 1:27, 1 Cor. 6:9

14 . If anyone takes a wife and her mother, this is lawlessness; He and them must be burned with fire, so that there is no iniquity among you. Lion. 18:17

15 . Whoever mixes with cattle must be put to death, and the cattle must be killed. Lion. 18:23

16 . If a woman goes to any cattle to copulate with it, then kill the woman and the cattle: let them be put to death, their blood be on them.

17 . If a man take his sister, his father's daughter, or his mother's daughter, and see her nakedness, and she see his nakedness: it is a disgrace; they shall be cut off before the eyes of the children of their people; he revealed his sister's nakedness: he will bear his sin. Lion. 18:9

18 . If a man lies with his wife during the sickness of purging blood, and uncovers her nakedness, then he has exposed her flow, and she has revealed the flow of her blood: both of them shall be cut off from among their people. Lion. 15:24, Ezek. 18:6

19 . Do not uncover the nakedness of your mother’s sister or your father’s sister, for such a one bares his flesh; they will bear their sin. Lion. 18:12

20 . Whoever lies with his aunt has revealed the nakedness of his uncle; They will bear their sin and die childless. Os. 9:11-12

21 . If anyone takes his brother's wife, it is abominable; he has revealed his brother's nakedness; they will be childless. Lion. 18:16 , Mar. 6:18

22 . Keep all My statutes and all My laws and do them, and the land where I am bringing you to live will not overthrow you. Lion. 18:28-30

23 . Do not walk according to the customs of the people whom I am driving out from before you; for they did all these things, and I was indignant at them,

Punishments for sin

1 The Lord said to Moses:

2 – Say to the Israelites: “Any Israeli or foreigner living in Israel who sacrifices his child to Molech must be put to death. The people of the community should stone him to death.3 I will set My face against him and pluck him from the people; for by sacrificing children to Molech, he desecrated My sanctuary and dishonored My holy name.4 If the people of the community close their eyes to the fact that someone gave their child to Molech and do not put him to death,5 I Myself will turn My face against that man and his family and will pluck them from their people - both himself and all who follow him in fornication with Molech.

6 I will turn My face against the man who turns to the callers of the dead and sorcerers, breaking allegiance to Me by following them, and I will pluck him from the people.

7 Sanctify yourselves and be holy, for I am the Lord your God.8 Observe My decrees and follow them. I am the Lord who sanctifies you.

9 Anyone who curses father or mother must be put to death. He cursed his father or mother, he himself is to blame for his death.

10 If a man commits adultery with the wife of another, then both the traitor and the traitor must be put to death.

11 If a man sleeps with his father's wife# 20:11 I don't mean mother this person, and the other is his father's wife.- He disgraced his father. Both the man and the woman must be put to death - they themselves are to blame for their own death.

12 If a man sleeps with his daughter-in-law, they should both be put to death. They did an abomination, they themselves are to blame for their death.

13 If a man lies with a man as one lies with a woman, they have both committed an abomination. They must be put to death; they themselves are to blame for their own death.

14 If a man marries both his daughter and her mother, this is debauchery. Both he and they must be burned so that there is no depravity among you.

15 If a man copulates with an animal, he must be put to death. Kill the animal too.

16 If a woman approaches an animal for copulation, kill both the woman and the animal. They must be put to death; they themselves are to blame for their own death.

17 If a man marries his sister, the daughter of his father or mother, and they have intercourse, it is a shame. They need to be publicly expelled. He dishonored his sister and must be punished.

18 If a man lies with a woman during her period and sleeps with her, then he has exposed the source of her bleeding, and she has also exposed it. They both need to be plucked from their people.

19 Do not have sex with your mother's or father's sister, because this is dishonor for your close relatives; you will both be guilty.

20 If a man sleeps with his uncle's wife, he has disgraced his uncle. They will be guilty and die childless.

21 If a man marries his brother's wife, it is unclean; he disgraced his brother. They will be childless.

22 Do all My laws and statutes and keep them, so that the land where I am bringing you to live does not reject you.23 Do not follow the customs of the nations that I drive out from before you. Because they did all this, I was angry with them.24 But I said to you: “You will take possession of their land. I will give it to you as an inheritance, a land flowing with milk and honey.” I am the Lord your God, who separated you from the nations.

25 Distinguish clean animals and birds from unclean ones. Do not defile yourselves with any beast, bird, or creeping thing, which I commanded you to consider unclean.26 Be holy before Me, for I, the Lord, am holy. I have separated you from the nations so that you might be Mine.

27 The man or woman who will call the dead or perform magic among you must be put to death. Stone them, they themselves are to blame for their own death.”

A chapter that not only explains certain types of crimes (such as chapter 18) - but also shows what punishment will follow for violating these laws. Basically, crimes that deserve the death penalty are listed here.
Although death is retribution for any sin inherited by Adam (Rom. 6:23, 5:12) - God, as it were, conditionally divides sins into grave ones, worthy of violent termination of life through the death penalty, and not very grave ones (for these types sin, for example, for theft - to save life it was enough to submit to God, make a guilt offering and compensate for moral and material damage caused by theft, see Lev.7).
Grave sins, as we will see, include those crimes the damage from which cannot be covered by any compensation (irreparable crime).

The grave sins against life, religious institutions and family, punishable by death, included: premeditated murder(Ex. 21:12; Num. 35; Deut. 19), kidnapping(Ex. 21:16; Deut. 24:7), adultery(Lev. 20:10; Deut. 22:22), homosexual relations(Lev. 20:13), blasphemy(Lev. 24:13-16, 23), idolatry(Deut. 13:6-10), including witchcraft and spiritualism(Lev.20:6, Deut.8:10-12) and persistent disobedience to those in authority among God's people(Deut. 17:12; 21:18-21).

Israel, having emerged from slavery to a pagan people with an ungodly worldview and adopted their customs, did not have the correct internal convictions about what was an abomination and what was not. Therefore, God taught His people to distinguish between good and evil with the help of the law of prohibitions, a system of punishments and fear for life.
Israel according to the flesh had to learn the principle of the inevitability of punishment for committing specifically stated crimes: if they were kept from crimes at least by the fear of punishment - this, at the stage of spiritual infancy, was enough to keep a lustful people from mixing with other nations and desecrating themselves with paganism, preserving the purity of the race from Abraham for the sake of the need to bring Christ from Abraham.

For those who have formed the correct internal beliefs about what is an abomination and what is not, the law of prohibitions is not needed. Spiritually mature Christians do not need to be prohibited from committing abominations: their inner convictions will protect them from committing them (Gal. 5:22-23)

The expression "cut off from the people" in some cases means death, usually by stoning (with the rare exception of burning, Lev. 20:14,21:9), and in some - excommunication (depending on the context).

Crime against a religious establishment
20:1,2 And the Lord spoke to Moses, saying:
2 Speak this unto the children of Israel: Whosoever of the children of Israel, and of the strangers that sojourn among Israel, giveth of his children to Molech, he shall surely be put to death: the people of the land shall stone him;
Moloch is a pagan deity; Canaanite rituals serving Moloch included the burning of children (Deut. 12:31).
Biblical Encyclopedia of Archimandrite Nikephoros:
Moloch is the name of a pagan deity among the Syro-Phoenicians and Ammonites. According to the description of the rabbis, the idol of Moloch represented a copper statue with a bull's head, other human limbs, with empty insides and with arms outstretched to the bottom, on which the children doomed to be sacrificed to him were placed and on which they burned from the flame blazing below.

20:3 and I will set My face against that man, and will destroy him from among his people, because he gave of his children to Molech, to defile My sanctuary and to dishonor My holy name.
Here God explains that Israel should not sacrifice their children to Molech: they themselves did not seem to understand the horror of such actions.
Some of the Israelites adopted child sacrifice in honor of Moloch (Ps. 105:37,38). Kings Ahaz and Manasseh sacrificed their sons (2 Kings 16:3; 21:6). Similar sacrifices were performed in the valley of the sons of Hinnom (Jer 32:35).
God perceived serving Moloch as desecration of his own sanctuary: in the presence of the true God, serving idols and giving honor to them is blatant sacrilege. By doing this, they showed that they were neglecting their God. Naturally, such crimes were irreversible: burned children could not be brought back to life and it was impossible to make amends before God. The result is the death penalty for idolatry.

20:4,5 and if the people of the land do not turn their eyes on that man when he gives one of his children to Molech, and does not put him to death,
5 Then I will set My face against that man and against his generation, and I will cut him off from among his people, and all those who follow in his footsteps to go astray after Molech.
Even if someone's service to Moloch goes unnoticed and as a result the criminal escapes the death penalty, then God C We will take care of the destruction of him, his entire family and all his companions in this spiritual fornication.

20:6 And if any soul turns to those who call the dead and to magicians to walk after them fornication, then I will turn My face against that soul and will destroy it from among its people. (see also Deut. 18:10,11; 1 Sam. 28:9. 6)
Spiritual fornication or idolatry also included seeking help from spiritualistic mediums, fortune-tellers, etc. (Wed from 19:26, 31)

20:7,8 Sanctify yourselves and be holy, for I the Lord your God am [holy].
8 Keep My statutes and do them, for I am the Lord who sanctifies you.
Israel could sanctify itself only if it lived according to the laws of the Holy One and was not like all the other inhabitants of the Earth: keeping the commandments of God made them holy (helped it lead a righteous lifestyle, distinguishing them from all nations and separating them from the rest)

Crime against family institutions
20:9 Whoever curses his father or his mother shall be put to death; He reviled his father and his mother: his blood is on him.
Slandering of a father or mother is punishable by death, as a crime that undermines the divinely established foundations of community life (social life): stability, order and prosperity in a large “community” depend on the prosperity of the family institution. He who encroaches on the honor of visible earthly parents encroaches on the honor of the invisible heavenly Parent, the founder of the institution of the family. Such a person should not live: he who offends the Almighty has no way to compensate Him for moral damage; this crime is incorrigible.

20:10 If anyone commits adultery with his married wife, if anyone commits adultery with his neighbor’s wife, both the adulterer and the adulteress shall be put to death. (See 18:20)
Here we are talking about the prohibition of illegal relationships, which meant all adultery. Adultery was defined in the Old Testament as the relationship of a married or engaged woman with any man who was not her husband. This definition did not include the relationship of a married man with a single woman, which was considered a lesser crime (Ex. 22:16-17; Deut. 22:28-29). The sin of adultery is incorrigible: someone else’s marriage bed is desecrated (someone else’s wife is irreparably “spoiled”). Therefore - the death penalty.

20:11 Whoever lies with his father's wife has revealed his father's nakedness: they both shall be put to death. (See 18:8).
A father's son is not allowed to enter into intimate relationships not only with his mother, but also with his father's other wives, even if they become widows.

their blood is on them (used in further texts) - means that they themselves are guilty of their own death: by doing this, despite the fact that this is an abomination in the eyes of God, they voluntarily choose death.

20:12 If anyone lies with his daughter-in-law, then both of them will be put to death: they have committed an abomination, their blood is on them. (See 18:15)
A father's relationship with his daughter-in-law, his son's wife, is prohibited: this is also adultery, a mortal sin.

20:13 If anyone lies with a man as with a woman, then both of them have committed an abomination: they shall surely be put to death, their blood be on them. (See 18:22)
Prohibition of sexual perversions (in particular homosexuality) practiced by those peoples of Canaan that God was ready to destroy for the sake of Israel.

20:14 If anyone takes a wife and her mother, this is lawlessness; He and them must be burned with fire, so that there is no iniquity among you. (See 18:17) .
A man's relationship with his wife and her mother is prohibited. Why this type of sin was punished by burning is difficult to say. (see also 21:9)

20:15, 16 Whoever mixes with cattle shall be put to death, and the cattle shall be killed. 16 If a woman goes to any animal to have sex with it, then kill the woman and the animal: they shall be put to death; their blood shall be on them. (18:23)
Prohibition of sexual perversions (in particular, bestiality) practiced by those peoples of Canaan that God was ready to destroy for the sake of Israel. Most likely, we are talking about punishment by death by stoning.

20:17 If a man take his sister, his father's daughter, or his mother's daughter, and see her nakedness, and she see his nakedness: it is a disgrace; they shall be cut off before the eyes of the children of their people; he revealed his sister's nakedness: he will bear his sin. (See 18:9).
We are talking about a man’s relationship with his siblings or half-sisters (on his father’s or mother’s side), worthy of punishment by death.

20:18 If a man lies with his wife during a sickness [blood cleansing] and uncovers her nakedness, then he has exposed her flow, and she has revealed the flow of her blood: both of them shall be cut off from among their people.
In this case, the sin of ritual impurity was committed within the same family by a husband and wife for whom intimate relationships are natural, because they are provided for by God.
Ritual impurity is “washed away” by a series of ritual procedures to cleanse the defilement of impurity (See 15:19,24)

20:19 Do not uncover the nakedness of your mother’s sister or your father’s sister, for such a one bares his flesh; they will bear their sin.
A relationship between a nephew and his paternal or maternal aunt is unacceptable: these relationships affect the honor of other families (aunts may potentially have their own husbands, the honor of their present or future husbands is affected). For this, the perpetrators are punished by death, as well as other types of insult to the honor of other families (see 20:17)

20:20, 21 Whoever lies with his aunt has revealed the nakedness of his uncle; They will bear their sin and die childless.
21 If a man takes his brother's wife, it is abominable; he has revealed his brother's nakedness; they will be childless.
Apparently, we are talking about relationships with a widowed aunt or his brother’s wife - in cases of death of an uncle or brother: during their lifetime, such a crime is called adultery and is punishable by death (see 20:10).
In this case, there is punishment by infertility: their joint fruit, which God does not allow to be born, is indirectly punished. Thus God shows Israel that such defilement cannot have good fruit and the blessing of God, as if nothing special had happened.
This is why all childless people in Israel, regardless of the cause of infertility, fell under condemnation from others: even if it was possible to hide some sins from God, their consequences revealed those who sinned as infertile.

20:22-24 Keep all My statutes and all My laws and do them, and the land where I am bringing you to live will not overthrow you.
23 Do not walk according to the customs of the people whom I am driving out from before you; for they did all these things, and I was indignant at them,
24 And I said to you, Possess their land, and I will give you a land flowing with milk and honey as an inheritance. I am the Lord your God, who separated you from all nations.
Everything that God forbade Israel was done by the nations whom God drove out of the land of Canaan for Israel's sake.
With their vile way of life, the Canaanites desecrated (polluted) the earth: a bad example is contagious, but God’s Earth was created for righteousness. Therefore, figuratively, she could not endure these abominations and overthrew these nations (God sentenced them to extermination)

20:25, 26 Distinguish clean cattle from unclean and clean birds from unclean, and do not defile your souls with cattle and birds and everything that creeps on the earth, which I have distinguished as unclean.
26 Be holy to me, for I am holy, the Lord, and I have separated you from the nations to be mine.
The holiness of Israel was ensured not only by the fulfillment of the laws of family and religious establishment: their holiness could also be desecrated by the consumption of livestock, which God designated as unclean (see chapter 11).

20:27 Whether a man or a woman, if they call the dead or cast magic, they shall be put to death: they shall be stoned, their blood shall be on them. (See 20.6)
Once again the severity of the sin of spiritualism and magic is determined: apparently, this was one of the most common hobbies of Israel, therefore God repeatedly reminded His people of the death penalty for this crime.