Henry VII of England. The beginning of a dynasty. Tudors - royal family

In the Palace of Vincennes, in the suburbs of Paris, on August 31, 1422, King Henry V of England died. In two weeks he would have turned thirty-five years old. His wife Catherine of Valois, the youngest daughter of King Charles VI of France, was not yet twenty-one when she became Queen Dowager of England.

Having lost her husband, she seeks consolation in caring for her son - the heir not only of the English, but also of the French throne (according to the agreement in Troyes) after the death of Charles VI (October 21, 1422). Mother and son are almost inseparable. At public ceremonies in London and the south-east of the country in the twenties they are seen only together. When the presence of the heir to the throne is required in parliament, they sit side by side, hand in hand. On the occasion of private, home celebrations, Catherine takes her son to her Waltham estate or to her Hereford castle. Most often they lived in Windsor. In a word, Catherine turned out to be an impeccable mother.

The young dowager queen, however, worried the court council and the regent Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester - the uncle of the minor king. Catherine was young, pretty and cheerful, so much so that even in the dry chronology of those years, one of the historians notes that she could not completely “bridle the flesh.” Moreover, she continued to live in England and could easily get married. For the British, this was a new situation: two widowed queens - the wives of Kings John and Richard II - entered into new marriages, but they did not remain in England. And the very possibility of Catherine’s marriage worried and frightened the court nobility. Passions became especially heated after 1422. Just at this time, contenders for the hand of the dowager queen announced themselves: the regent himself, Duke Humphrey, and his uncle Henry Beafort, Bishop of Winchester. The two most powerful, powerful and rich gentlemen in the entire kingdom. They rarely got along with each other before. But until now, their differences concerned only politics. Now the rivalry threatened to seriously escalate the long-standing conflict. One of his contemporaries claims that Catherine herself had strong feelings for another of the bishop’s nephews, Edmund Beafort, Count of Mortein. There were even rumors that they were about to get married.

Of course, such a marriage would cause a terrible commotion in the “court and political chicken coop.” Since the twelfth century there had been no instance of a queen dowager marrying her late husband's vassal. The very thought of such a misalliance brought Duke Humphrey into terrible indignation. In 1427-1428 A bill was submitted for parliamentary approval, which stipulates the conditions and possibilities for the remarriage of the dowager queens of England. Need I say what was the reason for drawing up such a document? And the purpose of the bill does not raise any questions: it is necessary to protect the royal dynasty from all sorts of surprises that are inevitable in the event of an unwanted and thoughtless marriage. The legislators worked conscientiously and, it seems, took everything into account and provided for it. So, if the origin and social status the queen's new husband were inferior to her own, this was regarded as an insult to the crown of England. If such a marriage did take place, all lands and possessions were confiscated from the newlyweds. True, children born in a new marriage were unconditionally considered full members royal family. The queen’s new husband also did not have to count on special significance in state and political life. In any case, the king's consent was required for the queen's marriage. But this permission was considered valid only if the king himself had reached legal age (in England - 14 years). This clause of the law made it possible to hope that Catherine would not marry soon: in 1427, Henry VI was only six years old. This means that the boy king may have a stepfather in eight years. For now outside influence There is no need to worry about his upbringing.

However, the court council was not naive and, apparently, understood that prohibitions and conditions, even in the form of a law, did not guarantee complete peace. Therefore, they resorted to an old and true remedy: from the autumn of 1427, the queen was constantly monitored. For three years, and maybe longer, they kept an eye on her either in the royal palace in England or in France, where in 1430 the coronation of Henry VI took place as heir to the French throne. But everything turned out to be in vain when her stormy romance began with “some Welshman” - Owen, the son of Maredad, the grandson of Tudor.

When and where Queen Catherine and Owen were married is unknown. For obvious reasons, the ceremony was secret. Until the queen's death (early 1437), only the closest people knew about their marriage. Presumably they got married in 1431-1432. after Catherine left her son's house. These dates are indirectly confirmed by a reliable fact: they had four children. In addition, at a meeting of parliament (May 1432), Owen was officially granted the rights of an Englishman. He was no longer threatened with the humiliating and powerless position in which most Welsh people had found themselves since the time of Henry IV.

Moreover, we do not know how and where they met. There are different versions. According to one of them, this happened in Agencourt, where Owen fought, according to another - during crusade to Greece, according to the third, he was presented to the court as a Welshman seeking peace with England after the Glendware uprising. All this, most likely, is speculation - after all, none of the versions has evidence. If, as is likely, Owen was born in 1400, he may have been one "Owen Meredith" who was in the retinue of Sir Walter Hungerford, Henry V's seneschal. Then he could have ended up in France in May 1421. And thanks to his connection with Hangerfond, he became part of the circle of courtiers of the royal court.

In general, the details of Owen's life attracted the attention of chroniclers after his marriage to Catherine of Valois. They are found in chronicles of the late fifteenth century. Often their authors simply humiliated the Tudor dynasty. Take, for example, the claim that Owen was the Queen's tailor. Or Richard III's claim that the queen's husband's father kept an inn in Conwy. To be fair, let us remember the more respectable positions that rumor ascribed to Owen: manager of the royal palace (majordomo), chief valet. During the reign of Richard III, he was often called “a servant in the queen’s bedchamber.” But a man like Owen, of old Welsh breeding and sourdough, would not, after the Queen's marriage in 1420, have attempted anything more than the position of, say, butler.

But, even if you start from the facts of the dry chronicle, it becomes clear that Catherine and the young Tudor were drawn to each other. As for the rest... This union is entangled in a hundred myths, fictions, hostility towards the Tudor dynasty, and prejudices. Where can we get to the historical truth?! Here is one of the most common versions of their acquaintance. It happened at a ball. There, Catherine first noticed Owen - he stood so unsteadily on his feet that he eventually fell into her lap. This was first recalled by Anglesey poet Robin Ddu. If this story is not true, it is at least quite funny. Later it was interpreted in every possible way by the most inventive writers of the time of Elizabeth I.

In the chronicle of Alice Gruffydd, a sixteenth-century chronicler from Flintshire, things look different. The Queen first saw Owen "on a warm summer's day". He and his friends swam along the river. Catherine fell in love with a handsome, stately fellow, and she decided to play a prank on him. Dressed as a maid, she made an appointment with Owen. He was overly passionate and tried to kiss the “girl.” She resisted and accidentally scratched her cheek. The next day, young Tudor was presented to the queen. The deception was revealed. The handsome man was “forgiven for his insolence.” They fell in love and got married.

It is difficult to distinguish fiction from truth. Their first meeting could have been more prosaic. Let's say Owen managed the Queen Dowager's estate in Wales. Who knows... But no one (not even Richard III) ever doubted that they were really married. And the offensive word “illegitimate” was never used in relation to their children.

The queen's desire to marry her loved one turned out to be stronger than her respect for English laws. Yet, despite the obvious love, she showed prudence. Catherine enlisted the support of a certain chairman of the House of Commons so that the Royal Council could not harm her chosen one. In response to the accusation that the queen is disgracing herself and the throne of England with her choice, she presents Owen's pedigree as evidence of her lover's by no means plebeian origin. Tudor biographer John Leland claims that he himself saw Catherine show this document in the House of Lords of Parliament. She generally showed interest - quite naturally - in the history of the Tudor family.

Sir John Wynn Gwydir later recalled that “the Frenchwoman Catherine saw no difference between the English and the Welsh. After his marriage to the queen, according to English law, Owen Tudor becomes an outcast, and the glorious history of his ancestors in Wales seems to have never existed. They were equated with barbarians." All this prompted Catherine to meet with Owen's relatives. He introduced the queen to his cousins ​​- John, son of Maredad, and Hywel, son of Llewelyn - noble and distinguished gentlemen. But in comparison with Catherine, completely ignorant and uneducated. She tried to talk to them different languages. Unfortunately, there was no answer. Then, smiling sweetly, the queen said that she had never seen such lovely mutes in her life.”

Catherine and Owen lived peacefully for several years. In 1432 he was naturalized (equal in rights to the British). And two years later (March 1434) he was entrusted with managing the affairs of the heir John Conwy, one of the richest and most influential landowners in Flintshire. Owen's duties included protecting the Esquire's land and property interests in drawing up the marriage contract. In England, the Welsh name - Owen, son of Maredad, grandson of Tudor - was harsh on the ears and sounded cumbersome. And Catherine’s husband begins to be called in English - Owen Tudor.

In her marriage to him, Catherine had four children: three sons and a daughter. The daughter died early. The sons were named Edmund, Jasper and Owen. (Apparently, the parents wanted to emphasize their connection with England, France and Wales). Edmund and Jasper were not born in the capital, but in Herefordshire, away from the eyes of the court nobility and the Royal Council. Nothing is known about the childhood of their third son.

Catherine spent some time, shortly before her death, at Bemondsey Abbey. She went there for treatment. The queen herself described her illness as follows: “prolonged, painful anxiety and despondency.” And she considered it “God’s punishment.” The disease turned out to be serious. It is possible that she lost her mind towards the end (this is just a guess). On January 1, 1437, Catherine of Valois gives her final orders regarding the inheritance. And two days later she was gone.

These are difficult days for Owen Tudor. Relations with the Royal Council were strained and uncertain. The enemies of Tudor himself and his late wife (there were plenty of them) could finally initiate a case and begin legal proceedings for violating the law of 1427-1428. Owen was out of danger only during the life of Queen Catherine, who was always ready to protect him. Immediately after her death, Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester, "declared a hunt" for Owen. He secretly travels to London and finds shelter in Westminster Abbey. Friends urged him to face the enemy. Owen resisted because he believed that the king had been turned against him, and now the ruler of England was hostile to his stepfather. In the end, he did appear before the Royal Council and even managed to justify himself: the charges related to the marriage were dropped from him and he was released in peace. But on the way to Wales, Tudor was arrested. All his property, including silverware, was seized. Together with the chaplain and servant, Owen is sent to Newgate prison. In February 1438, after an unsuccessful attempt to escape, they were returned to prison. Finally, in July 1438, Owen Tudor found himself in custody at Windsor Castle.

After Catherine's death and Owen's flight, the Earl of Suffolk's sister, Catherine de la Pole, takes care of their eldest sons (Edmund and Jasper). She was abbess of Barking Abbey. The very young Tudors lived in the abbey for more than five years (July 1437 - March 1442). Catherine de la Pole took care of their food and wardrobe. With them, as befits young gentlemen, they kept servants. When they reached adolescence(after 1442), their maternal brother King Henry VI began to personally ensure that the Tudors did not need anything and received a proper education. This is what the geographer and chaplain of the king wrote about this in 1485. Before his marriage, Henry was distinguished by rare chastity and strict morals. His house was completely closed to frivolous and annoying women who could captivate any member of the household. His half-brothers Edmund and Jasper Tudor were also brought up in this spirit. Their teachers were carefully selected.

Most often, they became church ministers who gave young men an education, taught them to live righteously and not succumb to the temptations of youth.

Their father was released in July 1439 on a large bail of £2,000 and with the condition that he appear before the king on first demand. Owen was fully pardoned in November 1439, and his bail was returned by the New Year. From that moment on, the elder Tudor lived as befits a noble gentleman of England and until the mid-50s belonged to a narrow circle of those close to the court. His adopted son, King Henry VI, is respectful of his stepfather.

His sons - Edmund and Jasper - are in the retinue, but are not yet formally considered members of the royal family. They become one in 1452. This happened for political reasons and due to the king’s special disposition towards the young Tudors.

By that time, their younger brother Owen becomes a monk. He enters the Order of Benedict and spends his life in Westminster Abbey. Vanity was not characteristic of him. The youngest son of Owen Tudor displays complete indifference to ranks and titles, both worldly and spiritual. Edmund and Jasper are a completely different matter. Recognized as the king's half-brothers thanks to their excellent pedigree, they belong to the top English nobility. These Tudors are destined to become the protectors and heirs of the Lancastrian dynasty.

Edmund died early. After his death, Jasper became even richer, as they conducted many commercial affairs together. Thus, after 1456, the Earl of Pembroke's income reached 1,500 pounds sterling per year. And his affairs were going in such a way that it was natural to expect an increase in this amount.

King Henry VI did everything to ensure that the young Tudors became full and worthy members of the royal family. Now the time has come to find a suitable bride for each of them. March 24, 1453 can be considered the beginning of the “matrimonial campaign.” On this day, both brothers attracted the attention of one of the richest and most noble heiress in England. Margaret Beaforth only daughter John Beafort, Duke of Somerset, was also related by blood to the king. Margaret was the granddaughter of John Beaforth (died 1410), eldest illegitimate son of the famous John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster. His first son born in marriage became the first king of England from the Lancaster family.

Their name comes from the name of Beeforth Castle, where Gaunt's mistress had a son, John. His mother later became the wife of the Duke of Lancaster. Under Richard II, Parliament declared John the duke's legitimate son and heir (1397). When the throne passed to Henry IV, he ratified the document (1407) with an amendment that deprived the Beaforts of any hope for the crown of England. It is still unclear whether a royal decree could accurately determine the English laws of succession to the throne. And, of course, no government documents could not change the fact of the birth of the Biforts, born out of wedlock. This circumstance determined the Beaforts’ relationship with the House of Lancaster for quite a long time.

The rise and fall of the Beaforts is somewhat similar to the history of the Tudor family. Their wealth and position in society mainly depended on the favor of one or another monarch. And often the legal rights of the heritage were simply ignored. Because of this, naturally, there were difficulties and conflicts. Both the Tudors and the Beaforts shared political successes and failures with their reigning relatives. John Beaforth was created Earl of Somerset and Marquess of Dorset under Richard II in 1397 (the titles were held in the family and passed on for 75 years). After 1399, he served at the court of his half-brother Henry IV, advisor to the king, as a diplomat, and as a governor. Along with John Beaforth, Henry's younger brothers also serve: Henry, Bishop of Winchester, and Thomas, who later became Duke of Exeter.

John's main landholdings were in the western part of the country (southwest of London). He had a castle in Surrey and his own residence on the Dorset coast. John's second son, also John, became heir to the earldom of Somerset in 1418. It was a man difficult fate. During the Battle of Boje in 1421 he was captured. He spent seventeen years in a French prison. After his release at thirty-eight, he married. This happened in 1442. His bride Margaret was of humble origins, the daughter of Sir John Beauchamp of Bedfordshire. A year after the wedding, he was granted the title of Duke of Somerset. In the same year (May 31, 1443), the couple’s only daughter was born. She was named after her mother, Margaret. She did not remember her father: after the failure of another military campaign in France in the same 1443, he fell into disgrace and died on the Wimborne estate (Dorset, May 27, 1444). Some historians believe he committed suicide.

When the Duke of Somerset died, his daughter was not even a year old. The huge inheritance left by his father also brought trouble. It was this that caused Margaret's very early marriage to John de la Pole, the son of Prime Minister Henry VI, Marquess of Suffolk. The only direct heir of the Beeforts was simply necessary for him as a daughter-in-law: the vain Suffolk hoped that over time the throne of England would pass to her and his son, since Henry VI was still childless. But in May 1450, the nimble minister was killed, and then (February - March 1453) the marriage of Margaret Beafort and John de la Pole was declared invalid.

There could be many reasons for this. But, most likely, Henry VI wanted to marry Margaret to his brother Edmund Tudor. In 1455 they got married. They had an only son, Henry Tudor, who inherited the blood of the English kings thanks to his mother, Margaret Beaforth.

As for Jasper... He has been looking for a bride for over thirty years. Needless to say, the choice of worthy brides in England was not particularly wide. And the constantly growing disagreements among the English nobility made it completely limited. It may well be that at that time (1461-1485) marriage with Jasper did not promise bright and, most importantly, lasting prospects for the lady. But another possibility is also possible: religious upbringing and the influence of a pious and overly bashful half-brother (Henry VI) did their job: Jasper chose to remain a bachelor.

After Edmund's death in November 1456, Jasper becomes Henry VI's closest adviser and enjoys unquestioned authority. He takes care of the widow of his late brother, without at all preventing her from getting married again. On the contrary, he takes care of his nephew Heinrich. It was he - Henry Tudor - who would change the fate of the Tudors from North Wales. The Tudors, who became members of the royal family and dynasty only because Catherine of Valois fell in love with and married Owen, son of Maredad, grandson of Tudor. And then their son Edmund married Margaret Beaforth. They had a son who inherited from his mother the blood of the Plantagenet dynasty, which gave him the legal right to the throne of England.

Henry VII, son of Edmund, grandson of Owen Tudor, would yet win the crown of the country. But this will not happen soon - in 1485.

Tudors- royal dynasty in England 1485-1603, which replaced the York dynasty. The founder of the dynasty, Henry VII Tudor (king 1485-1509), was descended from Welsh feudal lords on his father's side, and was a relative of the Lancastrians on his mother's side. The Tudor dynasty also includes the English kings Henry VIII (1509-1547), Edward VI (1547-1553), Mary I (1553-1558), Elizabeth I (1558-1603). With the exception of Mary I, all the Tudors supported the Reformation, adhered to a policy of protectionism, patronage of navigation, and the fight against Spain. The Tudor government was absolutist in nature, and parliament was an obedient instrument of the crown. However, already in recent years The reign of Elizabeth I began the struggle of parliament against royal absolutism. This struggle became particularly acute during the next dynasty of English kings—the Stuarts.

Tudor quest for power
The desire for power always gives rise to rivalry between contenders for the throne and crown. The period of history, covering the chronological framework of the Middle Ages, in almost all countries was marked by endless fights between barons, dukes, kings, emperors, including their heirs, for the right to supremacy in society and in the state. The Kingdom of England was no exception. The unrest and strife of the 14th century grew in the next, 15th century, into the war of the York and Lancaster dynasties, which in romantic history received the name - the War of the Scarlet and White Roses. This dynastic war brought enormous damage to the country. Crises were brewing in English society: political, religious and social, and the future of the country was threatened by foreign invasions. It was then that a new royal dynasty stood at the head of Britain - the Tudor dynasty, which with a firm hand put an end to internal unrest in the country and established absolutism.

History of the Tudor Dynasty
Descended from a Welsh noble family, which is one of the branches of the Coilchen family, thus they had the right to rule the whole of Britain. Role in English history They began to play with Maredid's son Owen Tudor, who married Catherine of France, the widow of Henry V. From this marriage two sons were born - Edmund and Jasper - to whom their half-brother Henry VI gave the titles of Earl of Richmond and Earl of Pembroke. Edmund Tudor once again became related to the House of Lancaster by marrying the great-granddaughter of the founder of this branch, John of Gaunt, Margaret Beaufort. From this marriage the future Henry VII was born (1457). After the death of the last Lancaster, Prince Edward (1471), the Lancastrian party supported the candidacy of Henry Tudor, who was in France. Taking advantage of the crisis in England after the seizure of power by Richard III, Henry landed in Wales, moved inland, defeated Richard, who fell at the Battle of Bosworth, and became king on August 22, 1485. Henry strengthened his rights to the throne by marrying the daughter of Edward IV of York, Elizabeth; thus the houses of Lancaster and York were united. After Henry VII, his son Henry VIII reigned, and then the latter's three children: Edward VI, Mary I and Elizabeth I. Between the reigns of Edward and Mary, the throne was usurped for a few days by Henry VII's great-granddaughter Lady Jane Grey. Since children Henry VIII They left no descendants; with the death of Elizabeth I, the Tudor dynasty came to an end. The closest relative of the dynasty was King James VI of Scotland, the son of Mary Stuart, who was the daughter of James V, whose mother was Henry VIII's sister Margaret Tudor. Thus, after Elizabeth, the throne passed to James, and the Stuart dynasty began to reign in both kingdoms of the British Isles. Tudor time- the period of the Renaissance in England, the formation of absolutism, the country’s active participation in European politics, the flourishing of culture (material and spiritual), economic reforms (fencing), which led to the impoverishment of a significant part of the population. One of the most dramatic events of the period was the English Reformation, undertaken by Henry VIII for personal reasons (lack of Rome's sanction for a new marriage), the Counter-Reformation and repression of Protestants under Mary, a new return to Anglicanism under Elizabeth. Under the Tudors, England reached America (Cabot's expedition - late 15th century) and began its colonization.

England under the Tudors
The Tudor reign spanned just under a century and a quarter between the accession of Henry VII to the throne on 21 August 1485 and the death of his granddaughter Elizabeth on 24 March 1603. These years are often referred to as the beginning of the heyday modern England, and 1485 was a turning point in the transition from the Middle Ages to the Modern Age, since events of extreme importance took place during the reign of the Tudors. The English Renaissance came towards the end of the Tudor reign and was patronized by the court. During this period, the unity of Western Christendom was undermined by the Lutheran Rebellion and related movements. Henry VII, who reigned from 1485 to 1509, conquered the throne with the sword. The king he destroyed was a usurper. In 1486 he strengthened his position by marrying Elizabeth, daughter of Edward IV of the York dynasty. Thus the red rose of Lancaster and the white rose of York came together to form the Tudor dynasty.
Under the Tudors there was an opportunity to establish closer ties between Wales and England. However, York supporters gathered at the court of Margaret, sister of Edward IV and Dowager Duchess of Burgundy, plotted against the king. Lambert Simnel, the son of a craftsman, was introduced as a member of the House of York and was accepted by some of the Yorkist lords. He landed in England in 1487 with an army of Irish and German mercenaries, but was defeated and exposed. Margaret of Burgundy, Charles III of France and Emperor Maximilian knew who he really was and used him as a tool of intrigue. But James IV of Scotland allowed his niece to marry an impostor and on this basis invaded England in 1496. The following year Warbeck landed in Cornwall with an army, and then deserted and surrendered. Two years later he was executed for his participation in another plot. The failure of the premature constitutionalism of the Lancastrian supporters and the long turmoil to which the Wars of the Roses led found expression in conspiracies against the king. A law passed in 1487 assigned certain members of the Privy Council the function of overseeing actions that undermined public order, such as riots, illegal assemblies, bribery and intimidation of sheriffs and judges, and maintaining bands of livery servants. This tribunal was called the "Star Chamber" and became the most famous of the emergency judicial bodies used by the Tudors in their domestic politics. Using courts with special powers, as well as councilors and ministers who did not belong to the rank of peers, Henry VII blew up political power nobles, already weakened and discredited by the War of the Roses, and concentrated it in his own hands. By establishing fines instead of punishments, the king consolidated his political gains and replenished the treasury. He did a lot to encourage navigation and significant progress in trade. Henry VII's reign was a time of political and economic progress and peace - albeit filled with conspiracies - and he left his successor a full treasury and a well-functioning apparatus state power.
Henry VIII , who reigned from 1509 to 1547, carried out his father's plan and established an alliance with Spain, marrying just weeks after ascending the throne to Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain and widow of his elder brother Arthur (1486-1502). Two years later he joined the Holy League, allying with Spain, Venice and the Roman See to fight France. The troops he sent to help Ferdinand were defeated, to which Henry responded with a brilliant, but without serious consequences, campaign in France. While he was on the continent, the Scots invaded England, but were defeated at the Battle of Flodden on September 9, 1513. In this last significant border battle, James IV and many other noble Scots were killed. Finding that the Allies were just waiting to take advantage of his youth and inexperience, Henry concluded a separate peace with France. The generosity, cheerful disposition and splendor of Henry's court were in striking contrast to the avaricious prudence of the former king. During this period, a great controversy broke out on the continent, which eventually resulted in the Protestant Reformation. Such a powerful movement could not fail to affect England. In 1521, Pope Leo X gave Henry the title "Defender of the Faith" for the book he wrote against Luther and in defense of the seven sacraments. Henry's religious beliefs never changed. He was given special permission to marry Catherine of Aragon, although some theologians believed that even the pope could not allow a marriage with the wife of his deceased brother. Catherine gave birth to six children, five of them died during childbirth. The girl who survived was Maria. Henry believed that he needed an heir. The case for divorce was started in May 1527 and submitted to Rome in the summer of 1529, but only four years later the papal court made a decision, and it was a refusal. Meanwhile, in November 1529, parliament began to meet; his work lasted until 1536. Laws were passed, as a result of which the English Church actually separated from Rome. Among them were laws prohibiting the payment of annats to the pope, appeals from authorities outside England to Rome; giving the king the right to control the selection of bishops and obliging the clergy to recognize the spiritual supremacy of the king. The Act of Supremacy of 1534 simply summarized all the previously adopted laws in this regard. His conflict with papal authority did help the cause of the Reformation, although the reasons for this quarrel had nothing to do with the claims of the Lutheran leaders. The closure of the monasteries in 1536 and 1539 and the distribution of monastic lands generated significant support for the royal policy. Those who defied the will of the king, preaching forbidden doctrines or supporting the papacy, had to pay for their courage with their lives. The political and constitutional results of Henry VIII's activities are significant. His power over parliament took unprecedented forms. The disappearance of bishops from the House of Lords led to the fact that for the first time this body began to have a secular character.
Edward VI He was in his tenth year when he came to the throne in 1547. He was the son of Henry VIII by his third wife, Jane Seymour. A few days later, the provisions that Henry VIII had provided for the minority of the new king were canceled, and Edward's uncle, soon to become Duke of Somerset, assumed the duties of "Protector of the Realm" and remained in this post until 1550. Somerset's foreign policy was unsuccessful. He wanted to unite England and Scotland, but acted so clumsily that he turned the Scots against him. Somerset invaded Scotland, won victory at Pinky Clay, and retired. The French came to the Scots' aid, and the marriage was arranged between Mary of Scots and the Dauphin of France, rather than the young king of England, as Somerset had planned. Domestic policy Somerset also failed. Social and economic conditions became increasingly worse, and attempts to improve the situation were of no avail. Finally, in 1550, Somerset resigned, and state affairs England was occupied by the Earl of Warwick until the end of Edward's reign. Warwick was entirely deprived of that generosity which was inherent in Somerset, combined with lesser instincts. Knowing that the young king would die without leaving an heir, Warwick decided to prevent the rightful heir, Mary, the daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, from accessing the throne. For this purpose, he chose Lady Jane Gray, the granddaughter of Henry VII's youngest daughter, and in 1553 married her to one of his sons, Lord Guildford Dudley. However, in the end the plot failed. The reign of Edward VI was marked by the beginning of the Reformation in England. For the first time, the doctrine and worship of a new kind of Christianity were legalized. In 1549, a new mandatory prayer book and missal was approved. Edward died on July 6, 1553 at the age of 16, people whom the former king would have thrown into the fire for heretical views were at the helm of both church and state.

Mary I, or Mary Tudor, nicknamed Bloody, daughter of Henry VI and Catherine of Aragon, escaped from the troops sent to capture her after Edward's death and was proclaimed queen in London on July 19, 1553. She considered the beginning of her reign on July 6, the day of Edward's death, and ignored the nine-day reign of Lady Jane Gray . The new queen was committed to the old religion, but she received the support of precisely those eastern counties in which the reform was most widespread. For some time, Maria pursued an extremely moderate policy. Bishops removed under Edward were returned to their parishes, and those who replaced them were in turn stripped of their posts. Reformers from the continent were ordered to leave England, but English citizens who applied to new faith, no violence was used. An Act of Parliament repealed all changes regarding religion made during Edward's reign. Everywhere there was a return to the ritual forms of the last years of the life of Henry VIII. Mary's worst mistake was her marriage to her second cousin, Philip of Spain. The announcement of the engagement served as a signal for the uprising. The main forces of the rebels headed for London, and the situation was saved only by the personal courage and initiative of the queen. But now Mary was frightened and angry, and not a trace remained of her former moderation. The marriage was solemnly celebrated in July 1554. The restoration of the spiritual jurisdiction of papal power caused even greater discontent. With great reluctance, the Third Parliament renewed the laws against heretics and repealed all acts of weakening the power of the pope in England, adopted since 1528. To ensure the adoption of these laws, guarantees had to be given that this would not affect the properties that previously belonged to the monasteries.
Elizabeth, who reigned from 1558 to 1603, was the daughter of Henry VIII and Anne Boleyn. Even though her parents' marriage was declared null and void in 1536, she became queen according to the law of the land and the will of the people. She inherited many of her father's traits. Like him, she had the gift of choosing competent advisers and understood the importance of a favorable attitude. public opinion. In the religious sphere, she tried not to go to the extremes of her predecessors. The vacancies in episcopal seats that opened up after her accession, including the Archbishopric of Canterbury, made it possible to appoint moderate priests willing to cooperate with the new queen. Elizabeth maintained the Latin rites until Parliament changed the laws again. The Supremacy Act of 1559 restored the provisions of the previous act adopted under Henry VIII; The act of uniformity restored the Book of Prayer, based on the second edition of Edward's Book of Common Prayer, but with some corrections that made it more acceptable to conservative believers. The pope announced Elizabeth's excommunication only in 1570. The queen's deprivation of the right to the throne and the Acts of Parliament passed in response made it extremely difficult for Catholics to remain loyal to both the church and their own country. The early years of Elizabeth's reign were not marred by persecution of political opponents, but the rebellion in the north in 1569, the last noteworthy attempt by the English nobility to resist royal power, forced her to take a more decisive position. In foreign policy Elizabeth skillfully played on the rivalry between France and Spain. Sometimes she herself provided assistance, and sometimes she instructed her subjects to help the French Huguenots and Dutch Calvinists, but she did this not because she wanted to become the head of Protestantism, much less out of a desire to encourage rebellion, but simply with the goal of harming France and Spain. In 1568, Mary of Scotland, who was forced to abdicate the throne, arrived in England to seek patronage and protection from Elizabeth. The Queen decided that the least dangerous solution would be to keep her outside England. Mary was the presumptive heir to the English throne, and for almost 20 years remained the center of attraction for forces who wanted to get rid of Elizabeth. In the end, on the verge of war with Spain and under pressure to get rid of Mary, Elizabeth accused her rival of high treason. Mary was executed on February 8, 1587. The final years of the queen's reign were marked by the reconquest of Ireland, England's nominal possession since the time of Henry II. It was a costly but quite serious struggle that lasted half a century. England has achieved impressive success both domestically and internationally. Elizabeth's reign was also marked by the flourishing of the English Renaissance. Despite its rough and cruel sides, it was an era of great achievements; nevertheless, after the death of the queen in 1603, her heirs were left with difficult problems.

The Tudors are the most famous ruling dynasty of England. Having come to power immediately after the War of the Scarlet and White Roses, they managed to restore order in the country and make England one of the strongest countries of that time.

The first representative of the Tudor dynasty was Henry VII, who restored the country and earned as much in a year as England had previously received in two. After him came his son, Henry VIII and his three children. At this point, the Tudor reign ended, because Elizabeth, Henry’s youngest daughter, had no children.
Below we will describe several stories from the life of this family, which will give a general idea of ​​what their reign was like.

The coat of arms of the House of Tudor became not only the coat of arms of their family, but also the coat of arms of all England. It is a red rose, in the center of which there is another white one. Thus, their coat of arms is the combined coats of arms of the houses of Lancaster and York, which unleashed the Wars of the Roses. This move was made to show the “unification” of the warring dynasties and the end of the war.

Wives of Henry VIII

Henry VIII is the second representative of the Tudor dynasty. He ruled brutally, squandering the budget his father had earned, killing perceived enemies and driving England back to where his predecessor had pulled it from. The king received special “fame” due to the number of his wives. He married six times and, in order not to go into details, briefly about him family life You can say it like this: “divorced – executed – died – divorced – executed – survived.” By the way, from all six marriages the king had ten children, but only three survived: Edward, Mary and Elizabeth, who later ruled.

Most Powerful Queen Consort

The most famous representative of the Tudor family (other than monarchs) at the moment. The life of Henry VIII's second wife is the story most often told, and the role of this girl is played by such actresses as Natalie Dormer, Helena Bonham Carter and Natalie Portman. And indeed, it was because of Anne Boleyn that Protestantism spread in England, which brought with it many revolutionary events. Initially, Boleyn was Henry's mistress, but later became his legal wife, giving birth to his daughter, Elizabeth I. But Anna's happiness did not last long. It is said that the queen suffered a miscarriage and the son the king wanted never came. After a short period of time, Henry VIII found himself another mistress (future wife) and executed Anne for treason, saying that he was forced to marry her by witchcraft.

Edward VI

Edward VI is the youngest member of the Tudor dynasty. Edward was crowned at the age of nine and reigned for five years. The boy grew up as a healthy, smart, cheerful and strong child. He developed beyond his years, knew four languages ​​and was the long-awaited son of his father. But in January 1553 the king fell ill, and in April he began to recover. By July, his condition had worsened even more. Last time When he appeared in public, the king was remembered as a thin, emaciated, pale and sick man. He died after six months of fighting the disease, leaving no heirs. Historians say that the cause of his death could have been lung disease (as said by surgeons of the time) or poisoning.

"Queen of Nine Days"

This nickname was given to Lady Jane Grey, who reigned immediately after Edward VI. She was only fourth in line to the throne after the death of the monarch, however, she was proclaimed queen before the other heirs. Maria, the legal heir, did not want to put up with this and, escaping from the palace, started a rebellion. Later she came to the Tower and threw Jane and her family into prison, after which they were beheaded. It is interesting that Jane herself did not want to accept the crown and agreed to this only after much convincing, despite the fact that she was appointed queen according to Edward’s will.

Bloody Mary

Now by phrase we mean a cocktail or a spirit that can be summoned by saying its name three times in front of a mirror. But in the sixteenth century, this name caused even greater tremors, because these were the words used to christen Mary, the first daughter of Henry VIII and the most cruel representative of the Tudors. Mary was a staunch Catholic, and therefore did not tolerate Protestants in her country. Everyone who disagreed with her ended their lives at the stake. In 1554, Mary married Charles V, a Spanish prince, but the people disliked the new king and his retinue. There were no children in this marriage either. At the end of August 1558, the queen fell ill. This period is described in different ways, but everything agrees that there was no hope for recovery. Despite this, Maria was still worried about the country. Deciding on state affairs, the queen soon fell into an unconscious state and ordered her verbal blessing to be conveyed to her sister. Early in the morning of November 17, Maria died. Her funeral cost the country £7,763 (over two million pounds sterling in modern terms) and she was buried in Westminster Abbey, where she still lies with her sister Elizabeth. By the way, the day of Mary’s death is a national holiday in the country, and in all of England there is not a single monument to her.

Queen Maiden

Elizabeth I is the last Tudor to sit on the throne. Her reign was in contrast to that of her predecessors: Elizabeth returned England to the top of world politics by defeating the Invincible Armada. She was very different from her gloomy and cruel sister, she thought more about ordinary people, but she was also a wise commander. During her reign, many famous poets, writers and playwrights presented their creations to the world, and Elizabeth herself created a royal troupe (to which, by the way, William Shakespeare belonged). But nevertheless, there were ill-wishers in the country. So, for example, Mary Stuart believed until the end of her days that Elizabeth was a usurper and illegitimate, that she had absolutely no rights to the throne. Ultimately, Elizabeth died on March 24, 1603 and was buried alongside her sister. Interestingly, Elizabeth received the nickname “Maiden Queen” because she never married or had children in her entire life.

Henry VII (English Henry VII; January 28, 1457 - April 21, 1509) - king of England and sovereign of Ireland (1485-1509), the first monarch of the Tudor dynasty.

From birth until his accession to the throne, the future king bore the name Henry Tudor, Earl of Richmond. On his father's side he belonged to an ancient Welsh family that took the surname Tudor in honor of Henry's great-great-grandfather, Tudur ap Goronwy. Henry's grandfather, Owen Tudor, was in the service of the widow of King Henry V and mother of Henry VI, the French princess Catherine of Valois; It is not known for sure whether their long-term relationship, from which several recognized children were born, was sanctified by secret marriage. Their son Edmund Tudor, 1st Earl of Richmond, half-brother of King Henry VI, once again became related to the Lancaster family by marrying Margaret Beaufort, granddaughter of the illegitimate (later legitimized) son of the founder of the House of Lancaster, John of Gaunt.

Wife of Henry VII - Elizabeth of York

His marriage to Elizabeth of York in 1486 united the two warring lines, symbolically ending the Wars of the Roses. Elizabeth was crowned in 1487. In her marriage to the king, she gave birth to seven children, four of whom survived. The eldest son, Arthur, died childless in his youth, the other three reached maturity. Prince Henry became king of England after the death of his father. His children, as well as some of the descendants of his two sisters, Mary and Margaret, subsequently also ascended to the throne of England.

Henry VIII (1491-1547) - reign (1509-1547)

Henry VIII Tudor (English Henry VIII; June 28, 1491, Greenwich - January 28, 1547, London) - King of England from April 22, 1509, son and heir of King Henry VII of England, the second English monarch from the Tudor dynasty. With the consent of the Roman catholic church, the English kings were also called “Lords of Ireland,” but in 1541, at the request of Henry VIII, who was excommunicated from the Catholic Church, the Irish parliament gave him the title “King of Ireland.”

Educated and gifted, Henry ruled as a representative of European absolutism, and by the end of his reign he harshly persecuted his real and imaginary political opponents. IN later years suffered from excess weight and other health problems.

Henry VIII is best known for the English Reformation, which made England a majority Protestant nation; and an unusual number of marriages for a Christian - in total the king had 6 wives, of which he divorced two, and executed two on charges of treason. The king sought to produce a male heir to consolidate the power of the Tudor dynasty. Henry VIII's divorce from his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, led to the king's excommunication from the Catholic Church and a series of church reforms in England, when the Anglican Church separated from the Roman Catholic Church. In addition, the constant change of spouses and favorites of the king and church reformation turned out to be a serious arena for political struggle and led to a number of executions politicians, among whom was, for example, Thomas More.

Henry was born on June 28, 1491 in Greenwich. He was the third child of Henry VII and Elizabeth of York. His father Henry VII prepared his son to take holy orders. His upbringing was overseen by his grandmother Lady Margaret Beaufort. Under her leadership, Henry attended up to six masses a day and wrote essays on theological topics, in one of which he defended the sanctity of marriage.

After the early death of his brother, Arthur, Henry found himself the main contender for his father's inheritance and received the title Prince of Wales. At the insistence of Henry VII, who wanted to strengthen the alliance with Spain through a dynastic marriage, the Prince of Wales, against his will, married Catherine of Aragon, daughter of Isabella of Castile and widow of his brother.

In 1509, after the death of Henry VII, the Prince of Wales became king at the age of 17. During the first two years of his reign, the affairs of the state were managed by Richard Foxe (Bishop of Winchester) and William Wareham. From 1511, real power passed to Cardinal Thomas Wolsey. In 1512, Henry VIII, at the head of his fleet, first sailed to the shores of France on the flagship Mary Rose, where he won the battle near Brest. In 1513, he set out from the city of Calais, preparing to make his first land campaign against the French. The basis of the marching army were archers (Henry himself was an excellent archer, and he also issued a decree according to which every Englishman should devote one hour every Saturday to practicing archery). He managed to capture only two small towns. Over the next twelve years he fought in France with varying degrees of success. In 1522-23, Henry approached Paris. But by 1525 the military treasury was empty and he was forced to conclude a peace treaty. As a result of the policy of ruining small peasant farms, the so-called enclosure, which was carried out by large landowners, a huge number of vagabonds from among the former peasants appeared in England. Many of them were hanged under the “vagrancy law.” The despotism of this king, both in state and in personal life knew no boundaries. The fate of his six wives is a striking example of this.

In the second half of his reign, King Henry switched to the most cruel and tyrannical forms of government. The number of executed political opponents of the king increased. One of his first victims was Edmund de la Pole, Duke of Suffolk, who was executed back in 1513. The last of the significant figures executed by King Henry was the son of the Duke of Norfolk, the outstanding English poet Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey, who died in January 1547, a few days before the king's death. According to Holinshed, the number of people executed during the reign of King Henry reached 72,000 people.

In the last years of his life, Henry began to suffer from obesity (his waist size grew to 54 inches / 137 cm), so the king could only move with the help of special mechanisms. By the end of his life, Henry's body was covered with painful tumors. It is possible that he suffered from gout. Obesity and other health problems may have been a consequence of an accident in 1536 in which he injured his leg. Perhaps the wound became infected, and in addition, due to the accident, the leg wound he received earlier reopened and worsened. The wound was problematic to such an extent that Henry's doctors considered it intractable, some even inclined to believe that the king could not be cured at all. Henry's wound tormented him for the rest of his life. Some time after the injury, the wound began to fester, thus preventing Henry from maintaining his usual level of physical activity, preventing him from exercising daily. physical exercise which he had previously dealt with. It is believed that the wound he received in an accident caused a change in his shaky character. The king began to show tyrannical traits, and he increasingly began to suffer from depression. At the same time, Henry VIII changed his eating style and began to mainly consume huge amounts of fatty red meat, reducing the amount of vegetables in his diet. It is believed that these factors provoked the quick death of the king. Death overtook the king at the age of 55, on January 28, 1547 at the Palace of Whitehall (it was supposed that his father's 90th birthday would be held there, which the king was going to attend). The king's last words were: “Monks! Monks! Monks!

Henry VIII was married six times. The fate of his spouse is memorized by English schoolchildren using the mnemonic phrase “divorced - executed - died - divorced - executed - survived.” From his first three marriages he had 10 children, of whom only three survived - eldest daughter Mary from her first marriage, the youngest daughter Elizabeth from her second, and son Edward from her third. They all subsequently ruled. Henry's last three marriages were childless.

Official portrait of Catherine of Aragon, Queen of England. Unknown artist, ca. 1525

Second wife - Anne Boleyn (1507-1536) (Anne Boleyn)

Anne Boleyn was Henry's unapproachable lover for a long time, refusing to become his mistress. She became Henry's wife in January 1533, and in September of the same year gave birth to his daughter Elizabeth, instead of the son expected by the king. Subsequent pregnancies ended unsuccessfully. Soon Anna lost the love of her husband, was accused of adultery and beheaded in the Tower in May 1536.

Daughter of Henry and Anne - Elizabeth I (1533-1603)
Third Wife - Jane Seymour (1508-1537) (Jane Seymour)

Jane Seymour was Anne Boleyn's maid of honor. Henry married her a week after the execution of his previous wife. She died a year later from childbed fever. Mother of Henry's only surviving son, Edward VI.

Fifth wife - Catherine Howard (1521-1542) (Catherine Howard)

Catherine Howard is the niece of the powerful Duke of Norfolk, cousin of Anne Boleyn. Henry married her in July 1540 out of passionate love. It soon became clear that Catherine had a lover before marriage (Francis Durham) and cheated on Henry with Thomas Culpepper. The perpetrators were executed, after which the queen herself ascended the scaffold on February 13, 1542.

Sixth wife - Catherine Parr (1512 - 1548) (Catherine Parr)

By the time of her marriage to Henry (1543), Catherine Parr had already been widowed twice. She was a convinced Protestant and did a lot for Henry’s new turn to Protestantism. After Henry's death, she married Thomas Seymour, Jane Seymour's brother.

Literature
Philippe de Commines. Memoirs
Francis Bacon. History of Henry VII
Lindsay, Karen. Divorced. Beheaded. Survivors. The Wives of King Henry VIII / Trans. from English T. Azarkovich. - M.: KRON-PRESS, 1996. - 336 p. — 10,000 copies. — ISBN 5-232-00389-5
Perfilyev, Oleg. Bluebeard's Wives. In the bedroom of Henry VIII. - M.: OLMA-PRESS, 1999. - 415 p.
Erickson, Carolly. Bloody Mary / Trans. from English L.G. Mordukhovich. - M.: AST, 2008. - 637 p.
Starkey, David. Six Wives: The Queens of Henry VIII. - New York: HarperPerennial, 2004. - 880 p.
Weir, Alison. The Six Wives of Henry VIII. - New York: Grove Press, 1991. - 656 p.

The history of the Tudor reign is the most exciting detective story for posterity through five centuries. For the possession of the royal crown, as a result of feuds between the York and Lancaster clans, a dynastic war raged in England for three decades. The confrontation between the incumbent king Henry VI and the influential Duke Richard of York reached its peak in 1450. The English House of Commons insisted on the expulsion of Henry VI and Richard York was proposed as heir to the throne.

In the small town of St. Albans, north of London, in 1455 a battle took place between the royal troops and York supporters. The royal troops fled in panic, the Duke of Somerset was killed, the king became a prisoner, and many of the Lancastrians died. The king's supporters and relatives of the victims did not accept this. The confrontation between the clans resulted in hostilities, the two warring clans used mercenaries from the allies (the French), the York troops fought under the symbol of the clan - the White Boar, the Lancastrian army had the Red Dragon on its coat of arms. There was a quarrel between two feudal families.

Thirty years of carnage, including dozens of major battles and hundreds of small skirmishes, ended with the victory of the Lancastrian troops on August 22, 1485 in the battle near the small village of Bosworth. The Hunchback King Richard III fell on the battlefield. The families of York and Lancaster ceased to exist.

Henry VII - first monarch of the Tudor dynasty

Henry VII Tudor became the owner of the royal crown, a change of dynasties took place, and the new Tudor dynasty would last a whole century. Such a long struggle between York and Lancaster weakened the position of royal power. In the kingdom, there was rampant separatism among the nobility with the active support of militant feudal squads. The nobility in many territories of the kingdom achieved extensive privileges. The Catholic clergy subjugated the English Church, it was dependent on Papal Rome and was not subject to the crown. Only forty years later (1534) the English parliament, with the “Act of Supremacy”, would proclaim Henry VIII the head of the church instead of the Pope.

Having ascended to the throne by descent considered dubious by some historians, Henry VII began to consolidate his power and unify the kingdom. Disobedient nobles were deprived of their possessions, protests of the rebellious aristocracy were suppressed, and feudal squads were disbanded. The reserves of the royal treasury increased sharply due to the seized property and lands of the rebels. The king distributed part of the wealth to the new nobility, considering it the support of the throne.

Henry VII began to cultivate a new aristocracy (gentry), giving it titles and lands. He reformed judicial rights lords and strengthened the powers of royal servants. The king methodically checked the execution of his decrees. He created a number of institutions, among which was the Star Chamber. At the beginning, it controlled the execution of the dissolution of feudal squads, and later developed into a merciless royal trial of political traitors. During the century-long reign of the Tudors (1485-1603), a different model of government was established in the kingdom - an absolute monarchy. During the 24 years of Henry VII's reign, the income of the royal treasury grew, amounting to 2 million pounds sterling at the end of his tenure on the throne.

Henry VIII - second monarch of the Tudor dynasty

Henry VIII Tudor, replacing his father on the throne, took his principles of government as a basis. Historians write that the king was superbly educated, had a reputation for being an extraordinary person, but at the same time he was a despotic person who did not tolerate objections to any manifestations of his activities. The English nobility was diluted by an increasingly wealthy rural and urban bourgeoisie. Parliament did not limit the sovereignty of the monarch.

The royal administration controlled the procedure for elections to parliament, forming a party loyal to the king. The king's tentacles were launched into the system local government in the counties. Along with elected justices of the peace, the counties had crown-appointed sheriffs. The absolutism of the monarch was affirmed unconditionally. The specificity of the Tudor reign was the absence regular army. Due to the island position of the state, England did not have many external enemies, so the Royal Guard, created by Henry VII, consisted of a couple of hundred people.

Tudor warfare on the continent was carried out by mercenaries and volunteer nobles. The fleet in the kingdom consisted of up to 50 ships, but the monarch, in a moment of danger for the kingdom, had the right to attract merchant ships to strengthen his power. However, the financial crisis was a major headache for Henry VIII and all subsequent Tudors. The English kings and queens, putting pressure on parliament, demand more and more subsidies and set new duties on merchant companies.

King Edward VI

The next king, Edward VI, inherited the throne at the age of nine. Staunch Protestants, the Duke of Somerset (at first) and the Duke of Northumberland (later) were regents for the young Edward VI, whose reign was short-lived. The young king managed to carry out a number of religious reforms. The English Reformation of the first three Tudors was led by Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556), Archbishop of Canterbury. Mass on English The first parliament (1547) of the young king began. The "Act of Uniformity" was drawn up during the reign of Edward VI, it established worship in England in English. The basis was a prayer book compiled by Cranmer. At the age of sixteen, Edward VI died.

Lady Jane Gray - Queen for Nine Days

After his death, the throne is usurped by Henry VII's granddaughter, Lady Jane Grey. The plan of the Duke of Northumberland, at whose insistence the king appointed Jane Gray as heir, failed. Nine days later she, her family and the Duke of Northumberland were arrested, charged with treason and executed on the scaffold.

Queen Mary Tudor

Mary Tudor, daughter of Henry VIII from his first marriage, ascends the throne. Mary Tudor was an ardent Catholic and was able to restore Catholicism in the kingdom for a short time. Her actions were aimed at persecuting and destroying the leaders of the Reformation. Protestants gave her the nickname Bloody Mary for the executions of Archbishop T. Cranmer, H. Latimer, M. Kaverdal and others. But she did not return the monastery property taken away by her father to the church. Her marriage to Philip II of Spain was considered by many to be a rapprochement with Spain. The uprising led by the nobleman White (1554) arose under the slogan of protecting England from Spain. It was suppressed and not supported by the London bourgeoisie.

Queen Elizabeth I Tudor

After the death of Mary Tudor, Elizabeth I, daughter of Henry VIII Tudor from her second marriage, not recognized by the pope, becomes the owner of the royal crown. Elizabeth I brought Protestantism back to the kingdom, and Parliament reaffirmed the crown's primacy in church affairs. The right to appoint bishops belonged exclusively to the queen. The English kings and queens were the supreme rulers of the Church of England. The laws of the government of Elizabeth I equated the transition from Protestants to Catholics with high treason.

Queen Elizabeth was an inimitable ruler. Her foresight was expressed in her desire to ensure loyalty and protection to the crown from the bourgeois-noble strata of the population. She patronized the peerage, forgave debts and supported the feudal nobility with cash payments from the royal treasury, donated titles, positions and lands. The political experience of all the Tudors was taken by her for practical management kingdom. The Queen honed the policy (of all Tudors) of maneuvering between the nobility and the bourgeoisie to perfection. The queen's protectionism boosted production and trade.

Bans on the export of wool and unprocessed cloth from the kingdom, established under Henry VII, contributed to the development of textile production. Elizabeth energetically supported glass and paper production. Her initiative brought significant progress in the development of metallurgy and mining. But by the beginning of the 17th century, the royal crown was experiencing a severe financial deficit.

The state's foreign policy required a lot of expenses, which devastated the treasury. Conquest in Ireland, the war with Spain, and support for Protestants in France and the Netherlands devastated the royal treasury. Elizabeth's policy of maneuvering began to stall. An anti-government conspiracy arose (1601) led by the Earl of Essex, the queen's favorite. Londoners did not support the rebels. The Earl of Essex was executed. The financial bankruptcy of royal power and conflicts with parliament marked the beginning of the end of English absolutism.

At the end of the reign of Elizabeth I, England made great strides in foreign trade. English merchants receive financial privileges from the government. The Queen provided patronage to foreign trade and shipping. Thanks to her tutelage and favors, England created a powerful navy. The victory over the Spanish "Invincible Armada" dates back to her reign.

The queen was well aware of pirate raids and covered up the pirates, who gave her part of the loot. A diamond from looted treasures adorned her crown. Pirate expeditions became a source of income for merchants and the queen. In England, the Guinea Company was founded in 1588, which exported black slaves from Africa for almost a hundred years. The East India Company, formed in 1600, facilitated the kingdom's entry into India. This company was the only one that had a monopoly on trading operations on the coasts of the Pacific and Indian oceans. The crown found a way out of financial difficulties by creating such companies because merchants brought a lot of income to its treasury.

The absence of children from the last Tudor queen marks the end of the dynasty. The Stuart dynasty appears on the historical scene. King James VI of Scotland assumes the crowns of England, Scotland and Ireland.

Tudor Dynasty. English kings. List

1. Richard III York (1483-1485) - the last representative of the Plantagenets.
2. Henry VII (1485-1509), first monarch of the Tudor dynasty.
3. Henry VIII Tudor (1509-1547), son of King Henry VII.
4. Edward VI (1547-1553), son of Henry VIII.
5. Jane Gray (from July 10, 1553 to July 19, 1553).
6. Mary I Tudor (1553-1558), daughter of Henry VIII.
7. Elizabeth I (1558-1601), daughter of Henry VIII, last of the Tudor dynasty.

The Tudors' rise to power marked the end of medieval England and the beginning new era. The symbol of their reign was the white and scarlet rose. Having no rival claimants to the throne by origin, the Tudors had virtually no opposition. This circumstance gave them the opportunity to rule the kingdom without civil confrontation.