The concept of types of economic systems

In the modern economic space there is a general globalization of processes. The economy has undergone great changes over the past few years, which has led to new round in the development of world progress. This process is quite complex for the domestic and foreign economy, which causes serious difficulties in changing it. Circumstances indicate that a scientific understanding of the development of the world economic system is necessary.

Definition 1

An economic system is a set of interconnected economic elements that form a certain integrity, economic structure society; the unity of relations arising regarding the production, distribution, exchange and consumption of economic goods.

Main characteristics of economic systems

Typically, the following types of economic systems are distinguished:

• traditional,
• market,
• mixed,
• team

The traditional economic system is based on subsistence production. This system has existed for a long time. The main features of the traditional economic system are communalism, caste, and division into classes. Hand tools are used in production. Generations tend to make decisions of the previous generation. This system is characterized by tradition and low productivity with conservatism regarding production.

A market economic system is formed from a system of commodity production. In this system, private property and free pricing prevail. The state is assigned the role of observer in regulating the economic situation through laws. If “distortions” occur, they are corrected by the so-called “invisible hand of the market”. What, for whom and how to produce is determined by the market.

A command economic system is the opposite of a market system. Its main characteristic is centralization in the questions: what, how and for whom to produce. Demand for goods is estimated based on statistical data and the state plan. A distinctive feature of a command economic system is monopoly and high concentration of production. Private property does not develop, since there are significant obstacles to its existence. The main disadvantage of this system is the shortage of quality goods, since there is practically no competition, so the manufacturer does not increase the requirements for its own production. The positive aspects are resources - human resources and quick response to any external threats.

A mixed economic system is present in almost all countries. This system combines elements of all systems and assumes economic freedom and the regulatory role of the state. The implementation of entrepreneurship in this system shifts from one economic system to another, being somewhere between the poles (market and command systems). The function of the state is antimonopoly, tax and social regulation, which in its own way contributes to the growth of the country’s economy and improves the quality of life.

Note 1

At the moment, the economies of the world's countries contain elements of all economic systems - both market and command, as well as remnants of the traditional one. The most important industries from the point of view of the state are characterized by elements of a planned economy. Private companies own the consumer sector entirely. But on modern stage There are still certain goods that cannot be created without the traditional economic system, such as folk costumes. Therefore, elements of this system still exist in many countries.

The economic systems of modern states, as well as those that were built in different countries historically, are presented in three main models - traditional, command, and market. Each of the noted economic management systems is characterized by specific features. Let us consider the features of the traditional economy as the historically earliest one. What are its most notable characteristics?

The essence of the economic system

What is an economic system? There are quite a few approaches to defining this concept. According to one version, an economic system should be understood as a set of laws, norms, traditions, values ​​and institutions through which society solves problems related to economic management, and also answers questions about what to produce, how and for whom.

Regarding classification, there is a traditional economic system, command and market. Let's study the specifics of each of them in more detail.

Features of the traditional system

The traditional economic system is typical, if we talk about the modern period, for economically underdeveloped states. It is based on conservative norms and guidelines relating to ways of managing the economy, understanding the laws of supply and demand and the interaction of economic entities. If we talk about the history of human development, the traditional economic system was characteristic of the early feudal periods, when the basis of the economic systems of states and societies was made up of handicraft production, agriculture, and elementary forms of trade.

Apart from conservative attitudes at the level of rules and regulations, it has seen a rather slow implementation of new technologies. The first factor - the strong role of traditions - predetermines the reluctance of citizens to master new industries and modernize the economic structure of society. The second - the slow introduction of new technologies - becomes the reason that even if people want to bring something new to the economy, there are few actual opportunities for this.

Social inequality in traditional systems

The traditional economic system is characterized by an authoritarian, mainly principle of distribution of public goods. A certain elite receives the main resources. If we talk about tribal relations - a leader or a group of them. The standard of living of most subjects of society is low, since economic resources are concentrated in the hands of the ruling elite. At the same time practical significance this may not be the case, since conservative attitudes at the ideological level may predetermine the lack of interest of people in any excesses, social protection, or entrepreneurship. Therefore, the traditional type of economic system in some cases is characterized by very high stability. There are not many factors under the influence of which changes can occur in farms of this type. Mechanisms of revolutionary change from within, as a rule, are not formed due to conservative ideology.

The likelihood of the emergence of external entities interested in seeing a transformation of the economic model take place in a particular state with a traditional economy is low. Firstly, major players in the international business arena do not always want competitors to appear. Secondly, it may be more profitable for them to interact with the traditional economy - as a rule, locating production there, even if technologically simple, is often much cheaper than in developed countries.

Social characteristics of traditional economy

The most important aspect that is useful to consider when studying a phenomenon such as a traditional economic system is the characteristics of this model in a social context. The first thing worth mentioning is that farming is based on community labor. The release of goods is carried out jointly. Proceeds from their sales are distributed among the people who participated in the creation of the corresponding products. The sale of goods is carried out, as a rule, at the lowest prices due to great competition, as well as the relatively small purchasing power of the citizens who purchase them. In some cases, the economy of local farms may include service industries - for example, those related to repairs.

Labor productivity in traditional communities is not the highest. We noted above that public goods can largely be concentrated in the hands of the ruling elites. At the same time, in many cases, states build institutions for social protection of citizens, since the income that local farms bring can be extremely low, which creates a threat of political instability.

Sectoral structure of traditional economies

The main industry in traditional economies is agriculture. In order to organize production, we need, firstly, investments in the necessary infrastructure, and secondly, the desire of people to do something else, which may differ significantly from traditional activities, perhaps, to acquire new knowledge, skills, and competencies. In communities of the type under consideration, both may be absent in the required amount.

The agricultural industry is also usually not characterized by innovation. This is often due to a warm climate, in which there may be no need for significant modernization of growing and harvesting technologies. In addition, direct buyers of the relevant products may not be interested in improving agricultural work. The fact is that, thanks to the warm climate and other positive conditions for growing fruits, agricultural producers can be spared the need to use chemical fertilizers, genetically modify products, and use substances that accelerate the growth of vegetables and fruits. Buyers are thus beginning to get used to the fact that agricultural products coming from a particular market will be completely environmentally friendly. They may lose interest in purchasing fruits that are grown using innovative approaches.

As for the productive sectors of the traditional economy, most often these are small craft workshops. Technologies for producing goods in them are also, as a rule, quite conservative. And this may also be due to the wishes of potential buyers of the product. Many of them prefer to purchase products produced by craftsmen of the relevant profile - dishes, interior items, furniture - which are made by hand and using natural materials.

So, the main features of a traditional economic system: a communal structure of the economy, the predominance of agricultural products in the structure of goods produced, the presence of conservative norms in social behavior, limited access to new technologies. The corresponding model of economic management, in general, allows for free trade turnover, and this makes it possible for citizens to provide an acceptable standard of living for themselves and their families. In some cases it becomes significant social role states.

Command economic system

Having studied characteristic features traditional economic system, we also study the specifics of the command model of national economic management. Its main feature is the minimal intensity of free market relations. Key economic processes are managed by the state. If we talk about early historical periods - a feudal lord or a slave owner. Although it should be noted that even in the appropriate historical stages development of mankind, free trade rarely had restrictions. If we consider the positive features of the traditional economic system, we can highlight, first of all, the unpopularity of bans on the purchase and sale of goods by citizens. Therefore, practical examples of building a command economic model at the state level, before it appeared in the USSR, China, the Warsaw Pact countries, North Korea, Albania, and Cuba, are difficult to find in history.

In most states, the economy of the corresponding type has been completely or partially transformed into a market economy. The most active discussions are taking place in the expert community regarding assessments of this fact. There are experts who are confident that the command economic system has not taken hold in the world due to its low efficiency. Others, paying particular attention to the experience of China, say that the corresponding model is superior to any other in many aspects, especially when it comes to the social orientation of the national economy. The refusal of states from the command economy was, therefore, dictated rather by political reasons.

A characteristic feature of the traditional economic system is inequality in society. With a command economic model, it is not so pronounced. Therefore, in many states the corresponding system of economic management was very popular, and in many modern countries - China, Cuba, and largely in Belarus - it still works.

Command principles of economic management

As we noted above, a sign of a traditional economic system is the presence of conservative norms by which economic processes are managed. How does the state solve the corresponding problems when building a command model?

The key subject of the economy in this case is a certain political institution. Its task is to formulate economic development plans and ensure their implementation. The relevant political institution determines:

• what are the likely needs of people and society for certain resources;
• how many products of one type or another should be produced by specific enterprises;
• what technologies should be used to produce goods;
• how the products will be distributed.

The state also resolves issues with the optimal location of production, supply and sales channels. In a command economic system, the authorities set salaries, bonuses, and desired profitability indicators.

In some cases, the principles of self-regulation may be introduced in the economic systems of states. As a rule, this is expressed in permission to engage in entrepreneurial activities for certain categories of citizens, provided that the corresponding activities will be primarily related to the satisfaction of personal needs, and not the desire to obtain as much profit as possible. In this sense, traditional and command economic systems may have some similarities. In the first case, the basis of social production is precisely those farms that operate at the local level - private workshops, small shops, individual production of goods. In the case of a command economy, the permitted forms of business activity are likely to be the same.

Market economy

So, we have explored what a command and traditional economic system is. The characteristics of the second predetermine its pronounced dissimilarity with the first. Mainly because the subjects of society and business under it have the right to conduct economic activities relatively freely. In this sense, the features of a traditional economic system make it closer to a market one, which, first of all, is characterized by practically unlimited freedom of participation of citizens in purchase and sale relations. The level of government involvement in regulating these processes is minimal.

A market economic system presupposes, in a country with developed social institutions, primarily the participation of citizens in political governance. The model of economic development under consideration requires the protection of private property. Traditional, command, and market economic systems are dissimilar from the point of view of the mechanism for distributing public goods. In the first case, the main resources, as we noted above, are concentrated in the hands ruling circles. Under a command system, they are distributed by the state.

Distribution of public goods in a market economy

A market economy assumes that public goods will be distributed in society based on self-regulating mechanisms of supply and demand. The best public goods must therefore be acquired by citizens who have the necessary capital. In turn, no one forbids other people to invest their labor, establish their own business, develop as an economic entity and acquire the same status - a person with capital. While, for example, a characteristic feature of the traditional economic system is an extremely complex mechanism for increasing citizens' social status. Despite the fact that the corresponding model of economic development does not prohibit market relations, in practice the possibilities for human development own business or the capitalization of their labor is greatly complicated by a lack of access to technology, an underdeveloped legal framework, and often disapproval of entrepreneurial activities from others.

Compatibility of economic systems

The most important point that should be paid attention to: the types of economic systems we have considered (traditional, command, market) can, firstly, be mutually combined, and secondly, if we talk about the modern stage of human development, they practically never occur in their pure form , at least at the level of the national economy of the state. Even in developed countries there may be communities in which economic communications may have characteristics of a traditional economy. For example - in Russia, as well as in many countries Western Europe A significant percentage of GDP comes from agriculture. From a technology point of view, this industry can easily be classified as a segment developing within the traditional economic model.

Command principles of economic management are preserved in many countries - China, North Korea, Cuba, and to a large extent in Russia, if we talk about state-owned enterprises, which are leaders in many industries. Thus, in practice, in most countries of the world, a virtually mixed economic model has been formed. It can combine the characteristics of each of the ones we have considered.

What determines the predominance of certain elements in states that most characterize the types of economic systems we have considered? Traditional, command, market, mixed models, as a rule, are established due to social factors, the historical specifics of the country's development, the influence of other states, and the geopolitical situation. It is difficult to identify a set of criteria that states can rely on in all cases when choosing optimal economic management models.

There are approaches according to which the compatibility of a country’s economic system with market, command or traditional principles should be determined based on the civilizational affiliation of the state. There are many countries that are formally independent, having their own language and culture, but, if you follow similar points of view, forming a single civilization. In this case, even with marked differences in political priorities, it makes sense for them to practice similar approaches to economic management. Even if such theories are not considered as guiding ones, it can be seen that in many states that are similar in culture, very similar principles for building economic relations are observed. For example, the economic successes of Asian countries - Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, Singapore - many researchers associate, first of all, with a developed culture of discipline and hard work among citizens. If there were no appropriate basis, Western investors, who are often credited with a decisive role in the economic successes of these countries, would probably not invest in the development of new high-tech industries in territories that are not very developed infrastructurally and do not have significant natural resources.

The noted discipline of Asian peoples, according to researchers, is associated primarily with huge role conservative attitudes in socialization, education, perception of the world, in communication with other people that have developed in the respective societies. A similar characteristic is distinguishing feature traditional economic system. However, in the case of the national economies of the mentioned Asian states, we are talking about a successful combination of conservative approaches and full-fledged market mechanisms.

Thus, several forms of management have emerged on the world market. These are traditional, market, command and mixed economic systems. The first is based on small-scale production, retail trade, and individual entrepreneurial activities with low turnover. In a command economy, the leading role in economic management belongs to the state; in some cases, certain forms of private business are allowed, allowing citizens to satisfy their personal needs.

Under the market model, economic processes are managed with minimal government intervention. Commercial communications are implemented based on the laws of supply and demand. However, in its pure form, if we talk about the national economy of a single country, traditional, command or market economy are practically not observed. There may be some basic business management model, but in most cases it will include elements of other systems.

A command economy is a way of organizing the life of a country in which land, capital and almost all resources are state-owned. Such a system is well known to residents of the former Soviet Union. This is not surprising, because many of the states that were part of it have not been able to change it for several decades.

History of education

The command economy is a system that emerged as a result of a series of socialist revolutions that took place under the Marxist ideological banner. Its final model in the modern sense was developed by communist leaders: first V.I. Lenin, and then I.V. Stalin. The fifties and eighties of the last century marked the period of greatest dawn of the socialist camp. At that time, more than thirty percent of the planet’s inhabitants lived in its constituent countries. In this regard, it is not surprising that, according to many scientists, the command economy is the largest economic experiment on Earth in human history. At the same time, many of the researchers forget that it began with the harsh suppression of the slightest civil liberties, and its implementation entailed enormous sacrifices.

Marxist theory

Based on the theory of Karl Marx, the only way to significantly increase the well-being and well-being of mankind is to eliminate the concept of private property, eliminate any manifestations of competition and carry out all state activities exclusively on the basis of a generally binding plan. However, it must be developed by the government based on scientific data. The roots of this theory can be found in the Middle Ages, in the works of the authors of so-called social utopias. At that time, these kinds of ideas failed, but at the beginning of the twentieth century, after the formation of the socialist camp, the government of the Soviet Union began to implement them in practice.

Signs

The main feature of a command economy is the shortage of some (or even many) goods. If they are on sale, then, regardless of the place of sale, as a rule, they do not differ from each other in quality. In this case, the government proceeds from the consideration that the buyer will still buy what is available. Thus, it is not surprising that there is no need to manufacture more expensive products and build similar stores on every street.

The next sign of a command economy is the absolute absence of an oversupply of manufactured goods under any conditions. The explanation for this is very simple and lies in the fact that the government of a state with such a system will under no circumstances allow the irrational use of its own resources.

It should also be noted that a country with such an economic system provides constant support to state-owned enterprises. It is expressed by clear planning of break-even sales markets, a loyal tax policy, as well as constant subsidies. Another significant feature of a command economy is the very appropriate use of labor resources in the enterprises mentioned above. This fact can be explained by the fact that, due to the absence of excess production, the need to overwork personnel and assign overtime hours is leveled out.

Property in a command economy

For countries in which a command economic system operates, it is typical that all government bodies are in the hands of production organizations. At the same time, there are enterprises with municipal or national ownership. Cooperatives also have their place in the system. At the same time, the latter form of ownership does not apply to production companies that generate profit. It applies only to such entities economic activity that can provide individual benefits for citizens. This may include housing funds, preschool institutions, garages, and so on.

Flaws

Almost all the problems of a command economy stem from the fact that the highest authority of the country controls production. At the same time, all subjects of the state economy, in fact, are in equal conditions and rights. This leads to the fact that even the slightest inclinations of a competitive environment are reduced to zero. Based on the fact that this will not bring greater material results, the desire of entrepreneurs to improve the quality of their products is also leveled. Due to the fact that all goods produced in the country are more or less evenly distributed among all regions, the wages of the working class are in the maximum possible level of equality. Thus, there can be no talk of the desire of enterprise personnel to improve the quality of their own work. The whole problem in this case comes down to the fact that no matter how hard a person works, he will not receive a salary that goes beyond the salary in one category or another.

Positive aspects

Despite all the negative aspects of the system that were discussed earlier, there are also some advantages of a command economy. Its main “advantage” can be called the absence of the need for financial and labor costs to promote products on the market. Based on the fact that the government is a monopolist in the commercial market, there is no competition. In other words, the goods will be sold in any case, since there is a state quota.

Another great advantage of the planned-command economic system is the absence of class divisions within society. Due to relatively equal wages, in any state where it prevails, there are no very rich citizens and poor people. It would also be correct to note that many problems characteristic of a market economy can be easily solved using the planned-command method.

Population life

The command economic system has nothing to do with basic human needs. The circulation of products in society is quite simple. The decision on the production of goods and their sectoral distribution is made only by the government. Products are distributed across all regions of the country based on the idea that the population of each of them evenly consumes not only essential goods (including food and medicine), but also clothing and household appliances in full accordance with the volumes produced. As practice shows, this kind of approach cannot be called correct, because those goods that are not at all in demand in one area may be vital in a neighboring region. Even such features of a command economy did not prevent it from thriving very successfully even in many strong states. As for the welfare of citizens, the salary of each working person is proportional to the volume of his work. At the same time, the average salary in such countries is quite low.

Examples of command economy countries

The very first and most famous state in history to use a command economy is the Soviet Union, which switched to it back in 1917. The peak of development of such a system fell in the fifties of the last century. At that time, a terrible production crisis reigned on the planet. In this regard, the USSR, Cuba, China and other socialist countries have become striking examples of this method of organizing the economic life of the state. At present, it is difficult to judge and answer unequivocally how effective it was at that moment. On the one hand, the industry found itself in a catastrophically difficult situation, which could not be resolved through the ratio of supply and demand alone, and on the other hand, it was difficult to find a more rational way to overcome the current situation than government intervention.

Be that as it may, the best indicator of the quality of economic systems of that time is the rate of GDP growth in the first decades after the war. If we analyze them, we can see that the capitalist Western European states were many steps ahead of the countries of the socialist camp in this indicator. Over time, the gap in their level of development only increased.

Difficulty exiting

The planned and command development of the Soviet Union, which lasted more than eighty years, led to the fact that the real level of the state at the beginning of the nineties of the last century was, to put it mildly, deplorable. This was reflected in the very low quality and uncompetitiveness of manufactured products, a decrease in the well-being and life expectancy of the population, the obsolescence of the manufacturing sector, as well as severe environmental pollution. The main reason for all this was the features of the command economy, which were discussed in more detail earlier.

Be that as it may, the process of transition to a market economic system is not as simple and fast as it might seem at first glance. No state can become successful within a few years. In this regard, in theory there is a concept of the so-called transition economy. It is characterized by uncertainty, instability and changes in the entire economic structure of the state. Something similar can now be observed in some countries of the former socialist camp.

Conclusion

To summarize, it should be noted that a command economy is a way of organizing government life, which is often called socialism. Within its framework, the government plays a monopolistic role in regulating the economic life of the country. It is the government that decides on the volume of production of a particular type of product, as well as its cost on the market. With all this, such data are established not on the basis of the real relationship between supply and demand, but solely on the basis of long-term statistical data, on the basis of which plans are established. Although such a model of state development has some advantages, as practice shows, in a market economy and competition, any country develops much more efficiently.

In the last 150-200 years There have been different types of economic systems around the world: two market(market economy of free competition (pure capitalism) and modern market economy (modern capitalism)) and two non-market systems(traditional and administrative-command).

Market economy— This an economic system based on the principles of free enterprise, diversity of forms of ownership of the means of production, market pricing, contractual relations between economic entities, limited government intervention in economic activities. It is inherent in socio-economic systems where there are commodity-money relations.

Originating many centuries ago, the market economy has reached a high level of development, has become civilized and socially limited. The main features of a market economy are presented in Table 2.1.

Table 2. Characteristics of a market economy

Main features of a market economy:
1) the basis of the economy is private ownership of means of production
production;
2) diversity of forms of ownership and management;
3) free competition;
4) market pricing mechanism;
5) self-regulation of a market economy;
6) contractual relations between economic entities -
tami;
7) minimum government intervention in the economy
Main advantages:	Main disadvantages:
1) stimulates high production efficiency; 2) fairly distributes income based on labor results; 3) does not require a large control apparatus, etc.	1) increases social inequality in society; 2) causes instability in the economy; 3) indifferent to the damage that business can cause to people and nature, etc.

Market economy of free competition developed in the 18th century, but a significant part of its elements entered the modern market economy. The main features of a market economy of free competition:

1) private property on economic resources;

2) a market mechanism for regulating an economy based on a free competition ;

3) large number independently operating sellers and buyers of each product.

Modern market economy (modern capitalism) turned out to be the most flexible, it is capable of restructuring and adapting to changing internal and external conditions.

Its main features:

1) variety of forms of ownership;

2) development of scientific and technological progress;

3) active influence of the state on the development of the national economy.

Traditional economics— This an economic system into which scientific and technological progress penetrates with great difficulty, because conflicts with traditions. It is based on backward technology, widespread manual labor, and a multi-structure economy. All economic problems are resolved in accordance with customs and traditions.

Main features of traditional economics:

1) private ownership of the means of production and personal labor of their owners;

2) extremely primitive technology associated with the primary processing of natural resources;

3) communal farming, natural exchange;

4) the predominance of manual labor.

Administrative command economy (centrally planned economy) is an economic system in which the main economic decisions are made
the state, which assumes the functions of the organizer of the economic activities of the company. All economic and natural resources are owned by the state. An administrative-command economy is characterized by centralized directive planning, enterprise
tia act in accordance with the planned tasks communicated to them from the “center” of management.

The main features of an administrative-command economy:

1) basis - state property;

2) absoluteization of state ownership of economic and natural resources;

3) strict centralization in the distribution of economic resources and results of economic activity;

4) significant restrictions or prohibitions on private enterprise.

Positive aspects of an administrative-command economy.

1. By concentrating resources it can ensure the achievement of the most advanced positions in science and technology (the achievements of the USSR in the field of astronautics, nuclear weapons etc.).

2. Administrative command economy able to ensure economic and social stability. Every person is guaranteed a job, a stable and constantly increasing salary, free education and medical services, people's confidence in the future, etc.

3. Administrative command economy has proven its viability in critical periods human history(war, elimination of devastation, etc.).

Negative aspects of an administrative-command economy.

1. Excludes private ownership of economic resources.

2. Leaves a very narrow framework for free economic initiative and excludes free enterprise.

3. The state completely controls the production and distribution of products, as a result of which free market relationships between individual enterprises are excluded.

Mixed economy organically combines the advantages of market, administrative-command and even traditional economies and thereby, to a certain extent, eliminates the disadvantages of each of them or mitigates their negative consequences.

Mixed economy - a type of modern socio-economic system that is emerging in developed Western countries and some developing countries at the stage of transition to post-industrial society. A mixed economy is multi-structured in nature; its basis is private property interacting with state property (20-25%).

Based on various forms property there are various types of economy and entrepreneurship (large, medium, small and individual entrepreneurship; state and municipal enterprises (organizations, institutions)).

A mixed economy is a market system with its inherent social orientation of the economy and society and the whole. The interests of the individual with his multilateral needs are being pushed to the center of the country's socio-economic development.

A mixed economy has its own characteristics in different countries and various stages development. Thus, the mixed economy in the United States is characterized by the fact that government regulation here is represented to a much lesser extent than in other countries, because the size of state property is small.

The main position in the US economy is private capital, the development of which is stimulated and regulated by government agencies, legal norms, and the tax system. Therefore, mixed enterprises are less common here than in Europe. Nevertheless, in the United States a certain form of public-private entrepreneurship has developed through a system of government laws.

Russia is practically the first in the world applied the experience of the administrative-command economy in the form of state socialism. At the present stage, Russia is beginning to use the main elements of a mixed economy.

2.2. Models of economic systems:

American, Swedish, Japanese. Russian model of transition economy.

For every economic system They are characterized by their own national models of economic organization. Let's consider some of the most famous national models of economic systems.

American model built on a system of encouraging entrepreneurial activity, developing education and culture, and enriching the most active part of the population. Low-income segments of the population are provided with various benefits and allowances to maintain a minimum standard of living. This model is based on a high level of labor productivity and mass orientation towards achieving personal success. The problem of social equality does not arise here at all.

The Swedish model is different a strong social orientation, focused on reducing property inequality through the redistribution of national income in favor of the least affluent segments of the population. This model means that the production function falls on private enterprises operating on a competitive market basis, and the function of ensuring a high standard of living (including employment, education, social insurance) and many elements of infrastructure (transport, R&D) - on state.

The main thing for the Swedish model is social orientation due to high taxation (more than 50% of GNP). The advantage of the Swedish model is the combination of relatively high rates of economic growth with a high level of full employment and ensuring the well-being of the population. The country has kept unemployment to a minimum, differences in incomes are small, and the level of social security for citizens is high.

The Japanese model is characterized some lag in the standard of living of the population (including the level of wages) from the growth of labor productivity. Due to this, they achieve a reduction in production costs and a sharp increase in their competitiveness on the world market. Such a model is possible only with an exceptionally high development of national self-awareness, the priority of the interests of society to the detriment of the interests of a particular person, and the willingness of the population to make certain sacrifices for the sake of the country’s prosperity. Another feature of the Japanese development model is associated with the active role of the state in modernizing the economy.

The Japanese economic model is different advanced planning and coordination of government and private sector activities. Economic planning of the state is of a recommendatory nature. Plans are government programs that orient and mobilize individual parts of the economy to accomplish national goals. The Japanese model is characterized by the preservation of its traditions and, at the same time, active borrowing from other countries of everything that is needed for the development of the country.

Russian model of transition economy. After the long-term dominance of the administrative-command system in the Russian economy in the late 1980s and early 1990s. the transition to market relations began. Main task The Russian model of a transition economy is the formation of an effective market economy with a social orientation.

The conditions for the transition to a market economy were unfavorable for Russia. Among them:

1) high degree of nationalization of the economy;

2) almost complete absence of the legal private sector with increasing shadow economy;

3) the long existence of a non-market economy, which weakened the economic initiative of the majority of the population;

4) a distorted structure of the national economy, where the military-industrial complex played the leading role, and the role of other sectors of the national economy was reduced;

5) uncompetitiveness of industries and agriculture.

Basic conditions for the formation of a market economy in Russia:

1) development of private entrepreneurship on the basis of private property;

2) creation of a competitive environment for all business entities;

3) an effective state that provides reliable protection of property rights and creates conditions for effective growth;

4) an effective system of social protection of the population;

5) open, competitive in the global economic market

2.3. The main economic problems of society. What to produce? How to produce? For whom to produce?

Any society regardless How rich or poor it is solves three basic questions of economics: what goods and services need to be produced, how and for whom. These three fundamental questions of economics are decisive (Fig. 2.1).

What goods and services must be produced and in what quantities? An individual can provide himself with the necessary goods and services in various ways: produce them himself, exchange them for other goods, receive them as a gift. Society as a whole cannot have everything immediately. Because of this, it must decide what it would like to have immediately, what it could wait to get, and what it would refuse altogether. What needs to be produced at the moment: ice cream or shirts? A small number of expensive quality shirts or a lot of cheap ones? Is it necessary to produce fewer consumer goods or is it necessary to produce more production goods (machines, machines, equipment, etc.), which will increase production and consumption in the future?

Sometimes the choice can be quite difficult. There are underdeveloped countries that are so poor that the efforts of most of the workforce are wasted just to feed and clothe the population. In such countries, in order to raise the living standards of the population, it is necessary to increase production volumes, but this requires the restructuring of the national economy and the modernization of production.

How should goods and services be produced? There are different options for the production of the entire set of goods, as well as each economic good separately. By whom, from what resources, using what technology should they be produced? Through what organization of production? There is far more than one option for building a specific house, school, college, or car. The building can be multi-story or one-story; the car can be assembled on a conveyor belt or manually. Some buildings are built by private individuals, others by the state. The decision to produce cars in one country is made by government agency, in the other - private firms.

For whom should the product be produced? Who can benefit from goods and services produced V country? Since the quantity of goods and services produced is limited, the problem of their distribution arises. To satisfy all needs, it is necessary to understand the mechanism of product distribution. Who should use and benefit from these products and services? Should all members of society receive the same share or not? What should be given priority - intelligence or physical strength? Will the sick and old people have enough to eat or will they be abandoned to their fate? Solutions to these problems determine the goals of society and the incentives for its development.

Main economic problems in different socio-economic systems they are solved differently. For example, in a market economy, all answers to basic economic questions (what, how, for whom) are determined by the market: demand, supply, price, profit, competition.

“What” is decided by effective demand, voting money. The consumer decides for himself what he is willing to pay money for. The manufacturer himself will strive to satisfy the desires of the consumer.

« How” is decided by the manufacturer, who strives to make a big profit. Since setting prices depends not only on him, then in order to achieve his goal in a competitive environment, the manufacturer must produce and sell as many goods as possible and at a lower price than his competitors.

“For whom” is decided in favor of different groups of consumers, taking into account their income.

Brief conclusions

1. In the last one and a half to two centuries The following systems operated in the world: market economy of free competition, modern market economy, administrative-command and traditional economies. In the last one and a half to two decades, a mixed economy has emerged.

2. In every system there are their national models of organizing economic development, because Countries differ in their level of economic development, social and national conditions.

3. For the Russian model A transition economy has the following characteristic features: a powerful public sector, a small share of small and medium-sized businesses, an uneven transition to market relations in various industries and regions of the country, high criminalization of the economy.

4. Basic economic issues(what, how, for whom) are decided differently in different socio-economic systems depending on the socio-economic development of the country.

Economic training

Key terms and concepts

Economic system; types of economic systems: traditional economy, market economy, administrative-command (centrally planned) economy, mixed economy; models of economic systems: Japanese, South Korean, American, Swedish; Russian transition economy; basic economic questions: what, how, why.

Test questions and assignments

1. What types of economic systems do you know and what is their essence?

2. Reveal the essence of models of economic systems.

3. What are the features of the Russian model of a transition economy (as opposed to an administrative-command model to a market economy)?

4. How does the Japanese model differ from the South Korean one? What elements of these models can be used in Russia to create a market economy?

5. What are the three main questions of economics that economic theory constantly strives to answer and what is their content?

6. How are the three main issues of economics (what, how, for whom) resolved in a market economy and an administrative-command economy?

7. What are the features of the development of economic systems at the present stage?

Exercise. Compose an economic crossword using the following terms: types, systems, tradition, customs, community, entrepreneurship, property, diversity, self-regulation, inequality, plan, planning, administration, centralization, concentration, state, models.

John Maynard Keynes (1883-1946), an English researcher of economic theory, by the 30s of the 20th century developed the theoretical foundations of a mixed economy, systematizing the conditions and results of placing government orders in private commerce enterprises. The data obtained showed that the use of such an economic system helps to solve the financial and social problems of the state. Keynes's theoretical conclusions were used by F. Roosevelt to formulate a new course for the country's development during a difficult economic period.

In the 60s of the 20th century, the American economist Paul Anthony Samuelson, relying on the works of D. Keynes, introduced the concept of a mixed economy in his theoretical studies.

Ludwig Erhard, a West German economist, used the theory of a hybrid economy, while serving as the Minister of Economy of the Federal Republic of Germany, to successfully build a social market economy.

The concept of "mixed economy"

A mixed economy is a hybrid model of an economic system: the production of goods and services is carried out by the state and private individuals. This type economy is focused on encouraging private entrepreneurial activity. Redistribution of income under state control ensures high level social guarantees, which corresponds to national interests.

A hybrid economy implies the presence of means of production, finance, products, the possibility of free trade or provision of services, hiring and firing of personnel, management of property and means of production, public and private companies, or their mixed forms, which gives all market players equal rights.

Functions of the state in a mixed economy

The state in a mixed economy performs a number of functions. The main ones include the following:

• regulation of financial, excise and tax policies;
• antimonopoly regulation;
• establishment of subsidies and benefits;
• formation of the legislative framework;
• use and maintenance of state property;
• control of foreign trade;
• income distribution.

The state regulates consumer, research, banking, social, customs, labor and other areas that are part of a mixed economy.

Private sector in a mixed economy

Representatives of the private sector in a mixed economic system are full-fledged market participants. They participate in the production of goods and services both individually and in the format of public-private partnerships.

To ensure social and financial policy state, private entrepreneurs, companies and other commercial associations are required to pay target, industry, insurance, license fees and taxes.

As part of supporting private entrepreneurship, the state provides market participants with grants, subsidies, and other incentives aimed at increasing the efficiency and development of the economic activities of individual entrepreneurs and companies.