200,000 - 35,000 years ago, all of present-day France was inhabited by Neanderthals who had the skills of stone processing using the “Levallois technique”. At sites dating back to this period of history, found near the French cities of Les Eyzies (fr. Les Eyzies-de-Tayac-Sireuil ) and Moustier (fr. Moustier ), in the Dordogne department numerous stone tools were found: side scrapers, handaxes, hammers, chisels. From the drawings left on the walls of the caves, it can be concluded that people of that time hunted bison, bison, wolves, horses and deer. The oldest French burials were also discovered here: the dead were buried in pits measuring 1.4 x 1 x 0.3 meters along with offerings in the form of stone tools, food, etc.

Celtic period

The increasing density of settlement of the territory and the inevitable contacts of nomadic tribes with their neighbors led to the mixing and mutual enrichment of their cultures. By the beginning of the 1st millennium BC, in the center of Europe (see map), a stable community of tribes of Indo-European origin, similar in language and material culture and currently called "Celts". It is believed that the spread of Celtic tribes in Europe occurred in two major stages. In the first stage, which took place from 1500 to 700. BC e., the advance of the Celts to the eastern part of modern France was predominantly peaceful. Initially nomadic with their herds of domestic animals, in 1200-900 BC. e. the Celts began to settle on occupied land and started processing it. It was at this time that the Celts had their first permanent settlements, fortified from attacks by hostile tribes.

At the end of the 8th century BC. e. the Celts mastered iron processing techniques (see article Iron Age). With the advent of iron swords and war horses, a layer of military aristocracy emerges among the Celts, which leads to colossal changes in social structure tribes who were previously engaged only in cultivating the land and were built on the principles of general equality. In the graves of noble warriors, such as in the village of Vix (Fr. Vix ) in the Côte d'Or department (fr. Cote-d'Or) in the French region of Burgundy (fr. Bourgogne)), archaeologists found luxurious carts. In these same burials, scientists have discovered luxury items made in different parts Mediterranean (in particular, from Egypt), which gives an idea of ​​the scale of the wealth of the Celtic aristocracy and the level of development of trade of that era.

The further development of trade led to the creation of Greek sailors of their “representative offices” along the entire Mediterranean coast. So, around 600 BC. e. Phocian Greeks founded the city of Massalia (lat. Massilia, Greek Μασσαλία ), in our time - Marseille (fr. Marseille). The rapid growth of this settlement was ensured by the massive migration of Greeks from Phokis during its siege by the Persians around 550 BC. e. Massalia became one of the centers of trade and widespread Greek influence on the European part of the continent.

The second stage of the spread of the Celts to the western part of Europe began with the period of the La Tène culture in the 6th century BC. e. This time is characterized by significant changes in the way of life of the Celtic tribes. The divided military nobility gives way to soldiers recruited from ordinary peasants and under the leadership of a tribal leader, and the wooden plow is replaced by the plow with an iron coulter, which made it possible to cultivate the hard soil of the central and northern part of modern France. These changes made it possible to conquer and develop new lands, which, in turn, led to an increase in population and the need for new conquests. The military activity of the Celts interrupted trade ties centered on Marseille for a whole century, but by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the city regained its former influence in the trade sphere, as evidenced by ancient Greek pottery and coins discovered by archaeologists throughout the Rhine Valley, in the Alps and even Lorraine.

At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. e. the Celtic lands were invaded by Belgian tribes who came from the south and west of modern Germany, and by 250 BC. e. captured the Massif Central and Languedoc. Despite the territorial losses, the Celtic civilization was experiencing rapid development at this time and was approaching the highest point of its prosperity: fortified cities (oppidum - lat. oppidum, plural oppida), which in their power and size cannot be compared with previous structures, and money is actively circulated within the state.

For the 2nd century BC. e. characterized by the dominance in Europe of the Celtic tribe of the Arverni, distinguished by their military power and the wealth of their leaders, as well as the deep penetration, initially only economic, of the Romans into the southern part of Gaul: according to the results of archaeological excavations, it can be seen that during the 2nd century BC. e. Greek amphorae are almost going out of use, giving way to Italian ones, and the inhabitants of the Greek colony of Marseille are increasingly turning to Rome for protection from Celto-Ligurian raids and Arverni oppression. However, the Romans did not limit themselves to trade relations with the Gauls and organized military expansion into their lands.

Roman Gaul

Historical maps of France. Table I. I. Gaul under Yu. Caesar. II. Gaul under Augustus. III. Gaul in 476 IV. Frankish Kingdom. V. Formation of the monarchy of Charlemagne.

The territory of present-day France in ancient times was part of Transalpine Gaul, as the Romans called the country bounded by the Mediterranean Sea, the Pyrenees, the Atlantic Ocean, the English Channel, the Rhine and the Alps. The Romans established themselves first in the southern, coastal strip of this vast territory, to unite Italy with Spain, and gave the conquered area the name Narbonese Gaul (about 120 BC). From here in 58-50. BC e. Julius Caesar conquered the other three parts, which were called Aquitaine (according to the Garonne), Celtic Gaul (according to the Loire and Seine) and Belgian (from the Seine to the Rhine; see Table I, Map I).

Medieval France

The Merovingians (late 5th century - 751) are considered the first royal dynasty in the Frankish state. The dynasty was named after the semi-legendary founder of the family - Merovey. Most famous representative- Clovis I (ruled from 481 to 511, from 486 king of the Franks). The last is considered to be Childeric III (ruled from 743 to 751, died in 754). Their capital from 561 was Metz. Since 751, the Frankish state was ruled by the Carolingians. Despite being called Roman emperors since 800, the capital of the Carolingians was the city of Aachen. The Frankish Empire split into three parts in 843.

Historical maps of France. Table II. VI. France in 987 VII. France in 1180 VIII. France in 1328 IX. France in the 14th and 15th centuries.

France also had a region outside Gaul - south of the Pyrenees (Spanish Mark of Charlemagne). During the last Carolingians, France began to split into feudal possessions, and with the accession of the Capetian dynasty to the throne (in 987; see Table II, Map VI) there were nine main possessions in the kingdom: 1) County of Flanders, 2) Duchy of Normandy, 3 ) Duchy of France, 4) Duchy of Burgundy, 5) Duchy of Aquitaine (Guienne), 6) Duchy of Gascony, 7) County of Toulouse, 8) Marquisate of Gothia and 9) County of Barcelona (Spanish Mark). Over time, fragmentation went even further; From the named possessions, new ones emerged, of which the most significant were the counties of Brittany, Blois, Anjou, Troyes, Nevers, and Bourbon.

The immediate possession of the first kings of the Capetian dynasty was a narrow territory stretching north and south of Paris and very slowly expanding into different sides; during the first two centuries (987-1180) it only doubled (cf. Table II, maps VI and VII). At the same time, most of what was then France was under the rule of the English kings.

The era of the estate monarchy

The era of absolute monarchy

France in 1789-1914

Main article: History of France (1789-1914)

Great French Revolution (-)

Since the last third of the 18th century, Europe entered a period of revolutions (Belgium, the Netherlands). Previously, the revolution in France was considered bourgeois, but in the 60-70s. XX century began to believe that different segments of the population participated in it. Capitalism began to develop earlier. Many seigneurial farms have already switched to the capitalist mode. The industrial bourgeoisie itself was economically weak. It is sometimes said that this was a movement for civil liberty against the tyranny of the Bourbons.

The monarchy tried to adapt to the emerging conditions, but this caused discontent among the nobility. Louis XVI carried out reforms for freedom of capitalist relations. For example, in the mid-80s he adopted tax reforms that included the elimination of tax benefits for the nobility and clergy. In 1787, a meeting of the Notables was convened, at which the Comptroller General of Finance (the head of the executive branch) proposed the introduction of a unified land tax. The notables demanded his resignation. Necker was appointed, who suggested that Louis XVI convene the Estates General, which had not been convened since 1614, to support the reforms. They opened on May 5, 1789. The first conflict arose over the procedural issue of how to vote.

First stage of the revolution: June 17, 1789 - October 5-6, 1789

Second Empire (1852-1870)

After Napoleon III was captured by the Germans near Sedan (September) during the Franco-Prussian War, the National Assembly meeting in Bordeaux deposed him (September Revolution), and the Second Empire ceased to exist.

Third Republic (1870-1914)

An attempt to resist German troops advancing on the French capital led to the establishment of the Paris Commune between March 18 and May 28, 1871, which was defeated after 72 days of existence.

IN late XIX V. France made major colonial conquests, taking part in the "Race for Africa", and became the owner of the world's second largest colonial empire. The Fashoda crisis in 1898 brought France to the brink of war with Great Britain, but war was avoided. French Indochina was created. In 1881, France established a protectorate over Tunisia, in 1893 over Laos, and in 1912 over most of Morocco.

In 1891, an agreement was signed to create a Franco-Russian union. In 1904, an agreement on the alliance between France and Great Britain was signed. This is how the Entente came to be.

First World War

Interwar period

In 1924, a new coalition government of socialists and radicals, chaired by Edouard Herriot, came to power in France. The country began an economic recovery.

On May 13, 1958, there was a military mutiny in Algeria led by General Jacques Massu, who demanded the transfer of power to de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, de Gaulle formed a new government. That same year, the constitution of the Fifth Republic was adopted by referendum, expanding the rights of the executive branch. De Gaulle was elected president.

See also

• France in 2000 (Future World cards)
• History of France (1789-1914)

Notes

1. Catalog of the main human sites in the Stone Age
2. Here is the most widely used translation of the city name. In some cases, the city name is translated Shiyak(see article Communes of the Charente department). Regarding the title ancient site term used Shiyak(see article Europe in the Stone Age and the work of V. S. Titov)
3. Some scientists question the man-made nature of the objects found there.
4. This name is given by TSB. According to some sources the correct name is Gyuntskoye
5. MEMO - History resource (French)
6. "Knowledge is power." 1978 No. 3
7. See also Combarel's article
8. See also the article Mousterian culture
9. Bernard Vandermeersh, "Cro-Magnon (homme de)" in Dictionnaire de la Préhistoire, ed. André Leroi-Gourhan, Presses universitaires de France, Paris, (French)
10. For example, in French city Karnak (fr. Carnac ) 2,935 menhirs stretched over 4 kilometers.
11. Jan Philip. Celtic civilization and its heritage
12. Here is the most widely used translation of the village name. In some cases, the city name is translated V(see article Communes of the Côte d'Or department)
13. One of the most important political forces of that time were the Romans, from whose written heritage modern scientists draw the most accurate information about the culture and life of Europe. In Roman sources, the Celts are called Gauls, and the lands, according to the Romans, occupied by these tribes are called Gaul. And despite the fact that Gaul, whose borders are described by the Romans, is much more extensive than the Celtic possessions, in modern literature (especially popular science) these concepts are accepted as identical.
14. French court recognizes French participation in the Holocaust

Literature

The most complete bibliography on the history of pre-revolutionary France was published in 1888 by G. Monod (see), under the title “Bibliographie de l’histoire de France” (cf. Historiography in France). Wed. also M. Petrov, “National historiography in France, Germany and England” (1861).

General essays. Simonde de Sismondi, "Histoire des Français" (1821-44); Monteil, "Histoire des Français des divers états"; Michelet, "Histoire de France" (1845-67); H. Martin, “Histoire de France” (1856 sq.); Guizot, “Histoire de France, racontée à mes petits enfants” (1870-75); Rambaud, "Hist. de la civilization française" and "Histoire de la civilization contemporaine" (1888); E. Lavisse (in collaboration with a number of scientists), “Histoire de France depuis les origines jusqu"à la révolution” (1901 et seq.; this work has just begun to appear).

Atlas: Lognon, “Atlas historique de la France” (1888); general historical atlases by Droysen, Schrader and others. In German literature - E. A. Schmidt, “Geschichte von Frankreich” (1839-49), with continuation by Wachsmuth.

Earliest period - see Gaul and Gauls. Frankish period - see Frankish Kingdom, Merovingians and Carolingians. Feudalism - see the article about it for historiography and bibliographical information. Age of growth royal power- see Capetians, Communes, Third Estate, Parliaments, Government officials, Hundred Years' War. The era of reformation of the Catholic religion and the wars of religion - see Huguenots and Reformation. Age of royal absolutism - see Richelieu, Louis XIII, XIV, XV and XVI.

History of France in the 19th century: Gregoire, “History of France in the 19th century.” (1893 et ​​seq.); Rochau, “History of France from the overthrow of Napoleon I to the restoration of the empire” (1865); N. Kareev, “Political history of France in the 19th century.” (1901; this work contains a detailed bibliography of all books and articles in Russian).

The era of consulate and empire - see Napoleonic Wars, Napoleon as commander. Restoration - see Louis XVIII and the Revolution. July Monarchy - see Louis Philippe and the Revolution.

The February Revolution and the Second Republic: L. Stein, “Geschochte der socialen Bewegung in Frankreich” (1850); D. Stern, “Histoire de la révolution de 1848”; Ch. Robin (same title); De la Hodde, “La naissance de la république de 1848” (1850); Pierre, "Histoire de la république de 1848" (1873-74); De la Gorce, “Histoire de la deuxième république française” (1887); Spuller, “Histoire parlementaire de la deuxième république” (1891); K. Marx, “Die Klassenkämpfe in Frankreich von 1848 bis 1850” (1895).

The history of France is studied in detail in 8th grade history lessons. The history of this country is rich and interesting. The article presents its most striking moments.

State of the Franks

The founder of the first Frankish state was King Clovis, who is considered a mythical figure. The Franks occupied the territories of Roman Gaul and created their own state there in 481. The descendants of Clovis did not pursue any policies, which is why this time is called the “era of lazy kings.”

The Merovingian dynasty was replaced by the Carolingians, who had to solve many internal and external problems.

Charles Martel was able to hold back the onslaught of the Arabs, who had conquered Spain and were about to invade the lands of the Franks. At the Battle of Poitiers in 732, the Franks were victorious and stopped the Arab advance into Europe.

Pepin the Short, son of Charles Martel, strengthened his power and gained the support of the Catholic Church. The heyday of the Frankish state occurred under Charlemagne, who became emperor in 800. Charles laid the foundations of a unitary state and carried out many reforms that made France the leading state in Europe.

Rice. 1. Empire of Charlemagne.

History of France

In the 11th century, Charlemagne's empire split into 3 separate states, one of which was France. The Capetian dynasty was on the throne, the founder of which was Abbot Hugo Capeta. Feudal relations developed in France, lords and vassals appeared. Speaking briefly about the history of the monarchy in France, it should be noted that the power of the king was minimal and large feudal lords played a large role in important government decisions.

TOP 4 articleswho are reading along with this

From 1302 to 1789, the highest class representative body, the Estates General, worked in France. Its occurrence is associated with the aggravation of social contradictions and the weakness of royal power.

At the end of the 11th century the era begins Crusades, in which France took the main part. We learn about her participation from the table.

In 1337, the longest of all wars began, which would last until 1453 - the Hundred Years. The French throne was claimed by the English dynasty, which wanted to expand its possessions on the continent. The British dominated almost the entire war and occupied almost the entire territory of France, however, the appearance Maid of Orleans- Joan of Arc - changed the course of the war and brought victory to France.

Rice. 2. Maid of Orleans.

By the 16th century, the Bourbons gained power in France. Under Francis I, two campaigns were made in Italy to conquer Milan and Naples and several wars with the Holy Roman Empire. His son, Henry, was married to Catherine de Medici, who ruled the state after his death.

Important: On the night of August 23-24, 1572, the Medici son Charles 9 ordered the killing of all Huguenots in France. This event is known as St. Bartholomew's Night.

France in the 17th-19th centuries

In the 17th century, France began to expand its colonial possessions, which forced it to take part in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), and then experienced a “golden age” under Louis 14, and before him under the “gray” cardinal Richelieu. Louis 14 took part in the War of the Spanish Succession and lost it to the Habsburgs. This forced his descendants to invest heavily in the development of the army, leading first to the French Revolution of 1789 and then to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon's empire did not last long and was destroyed by the coalition forces of Russia, England and Austria.

In 1848, France experienced a revolution that led to the creation of the Second Republic until 1852, when the Bonapartes returned to power.

France won Crimean War 1853-1856, but already in 1870 Louis Bonaparte was overthrown. Paris Commune established the Third Republic, which lasted less than a year.

France is a participant in the colonial division of the world

In 1870-1871, France loses the war to Germany. The rivalry of these countries for influence in the world and possession of colonies leads to the First (1914-1918) and Second (1939-1945) World Wars.

Rice. 3. Map of the First World War.

Since 1945, France has been a member of the Cold War"as a member of NATO.

Since 1957 - member of the European Union.

What have we learned?

The history of France is full of significant events. France is the birthplace of the revolution and the struggle for freedom and civil rights.

Test on the topic

Evaluation of the report

Average rating: 4.4. Total ratings received: 447.

France is the largest country located in Western Europe. The full name of the state is the fifth French Republic.

Land borders are shared with 8 states, two of which are practically invisible on the map (Andorra and Monaco). The country is separated from England by the English Channel.

The main territory of France is 547,030 km2, in addition to which it includes the island of Corsica and territories with an area of ​​more than 125,000 km2.

The capital of the state is Paris, famous for its Eiffel Tower, built by designer Gustave Eiffel for a competition in 1889.

The main territory is divided into 22 regions, formerly called provinces, each of which is divided into departments and has its own capital. Each region is famous for its traditions and has its own history.

France divided 4 large rivers: Seine, Loire, Garonne and Rhone.

1. When looking at the map, the shape of the main territory of the state resembles a five-pointed star.
2. From Paris you can get to London in 2 hours 15 minutes. To make such a quick trip you just need to board a train that passes under the English Channel through a tunnel connecting the two states.
3. The Eiffel Tower is one of the symbols of France. There are other symbols, the Gali rooster, the national anthem - La Marseillaise.

A little bit of French history

The First French Republic was established in 1792 to replace the monarchical system, which was undermined by the revolution of 1789. During the period 1792 - 1958 there were five republican forms board.

In 1958, the fourth French Republic was replaced by the fifth, based on an updated constitution, which is still in force. The main differences are the expansion of the rights of the president of the republic by reducing the rights of parliament.

Sights and resorts of France

France is divided into regions, each of which has its own characteristics: some are famous for traditional winemaking, others for resorts, and historical events.

Viticulture in France has flourished for many hundreds of years. The heyday of viticulture occurred in the 17th and 18th centuries. The areas in which winemaking predominates over other types of production are as follows: Bordeaux vineyards stretch along the Garonne River, the former Champagne region is located at the top of France, Burgundy wines are produced in Burgundy, located in the Rhone River valley. Famous champagne wines decorate exquisite tables of festive feasts in all countries of the world.

1. Champagne wines take their name from the Champagne region. It is illegal to call wines not produced in this region of France champagne, since the name is patented.
2. In 2004, France ranked second in wine exports.

In addition to river valleys in which various grape varieties grow, France also has famous mountains. The southeast of France is a favorite place for skiers and snowboarders. The snow-white Alps attract millions of visitors, and Mont Blanc, reaching a height of 4810 meters, is the highest point in Europe after Elbrus.

The town of Chamonix, located at the foot of the Alps, is the most famous and oldest resort. For more than two hundred years, numerous tourists and sportsmen continue to try the slopes of the nearby mountains.

In 1924, the first Winter Olympic Games were held here. The resort territory borders on Italy and Switzerland.

In the south of France in summer time Every year you can always relax and swim in the Mediterranean Sea; the Cote d'Azur of France will not leave you indifferent.

France map

Let's start with the fact that the concept of "short history" is difficult to apply to history of France. The influence of French history on world culture cannot be overestimated. Suffice it to mention that for three and a half centuries French was considered the language of international diplomacy, that France, until the middle of the 20th century, was a world empire with colonies in America, India, the African continent and the Caribbean islands, that various languages there are a lot of words borrowed from French and that France has always been an active participant in world politics.

French philosophers, writers, artists and musicians (and, Descartes, Pascal, Rousseau, Voltaire, Sartre, Exupery, Renoir, Matisse, Hugo, Bizet and) became an integral part of the world cultural heritage, and French directors are confidently at the forefront of modern cinematography.

History of France: the era of the Roman conquest

France was one of the first countries in Europe to establish itself as an independent state. The territory of modern France was originally inhabited by about four hundred tribes who called themselves Gauls and spoke seventy-two dialects. In 51 BC, after a series of successful military campaigns, the Roman Emperor Julius Caesar eventually conquered Gaul. He described this in his book “The Gallic Wars”, one saying from which: “I came, I saw, I conquered” - became a catchphrase.

And modern Frenchmen have created a comic book, the main character of which is Asterix, a resident of Gaul, a brave little Celt, who, together with his friends from his village, constantly fools the stupid Romans. His exclamation: “What fools these Romans are!” - also became common in France. There was even an Asterix theme park (located north of the city), an analogue and competitor of Disneyland.

Some scholars believe that Julius Caesar actually wanted to conquer the Danube Valley in Central Europe, and not the provincial wilderness that was then France. But he was attracted by the local gold, with which he hoped to pay off his numerous debts. Roman authorities in France established as state language Latin, which then transformed into modern French. The Romans also introduced a unified legal system.

Numerous ruins of buildings from the Roman era can be seen in France even now (there are especially many of them in the south of the country): in Arles there is the Pont du Gard aqueduct, in Nîmes there are Roman arenas, and the Cluny museums in the Latin Quarter are located in the ancient building of the Roman baths.

History of France: from Clovis to Charlemagne

After the Romans finally abandoned France in the 5th century AD, it was conquered by the Franks, Germanic tribes originating from Pomerania in the Baltic that dominated western Europe for more than three centuries. Clovis, the first Frankish king to convert to Christianity, was baptized in Reims in 498 (according to other sources, a year later).

Under the descendants of Clovis, the Merovingian dynasty, the country was effectively ruled by bishops and counts descended from the Gallo-Roman aristocracy. For example, one of the most powerful representatives of such families serving at the king’s court was Charles Martel, nicknamed “The Hammer.” He prevented a Moorish invasion by defeating them at the Battle of Poitiers in 732 and subsequently founded a new ruling dynasty. His son, Pepin the Short, seized the Frankish throne, thus beginning the Carolingian dynasty, and Pepin's son, Charlemagne, became a prominent European monarch.

Charlemagne was crowned Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire on Christmas Day 800 in Rome. Frankish Empire by that time included the Lombard Kingdom of Italy, most of Germany, and a border province located along the Pyrenees in Northern Spain. The empire collapsed after the death of Charles, but it was during his reign that the three ethnic groups inhabiting the territory of the Frankish state - Franks, Celts and Romans - merged into a single nation.

The weakness of the central government allowed some nobles to gain a degree of independence from the king. According to Frankish law, Salic law, women could not rule or inherit the right to the throne. This later became the cause of serious Franco-British conflict, but no matter how chauvinistic and backward this law may seem today, it is still worth remembering that Charlemagne, being illiterate, introduced compulsory education for children.

History of France: Franco-British conflict

France and Britain, as might be expected from two countries separated by only a narrow canal thirty-five kilometers wide, have repeatedly come into conflict (details on England's wars). One of the reasons for this was that the English kings, starting from the 11th century, laid claim to western lands France. Julius Caesar drove the British out of France in 55 BC, and they only returned to its lands in 1066 AD, led by William, Duke of Normandy.

From this point on, the Anglo-Norman monarchs constantly encroached on vast territories in France. During the Hundred Years' War, which was fought between England and France from 1337 to 1453, she was surrendered to the English and burned at the stake in Rouen in 1431, the inspiration of the French resistance. English claims to French soil were ended only after the expulsion of English military and civilians from Normandy as a result of the battles of Formigny in 1450 and Castillon in 1558.

In subsequent centuries, France provided refuge to such claimants to the English throne as Mary Queen of Scots, Charles II and James Stuart. Franco-British rivalry intensified as these great European empires formed. By the seventeenth century, France had become the leading power in Europe, with colonies and trade links throughout the world. However, during seven years war(1756-1763) she lost most of her colonies in India and Canada to Great Britain.

Then, in 1940, France became the victim of betrayal by England, which evacuated 300,000 British troops from Dunkirk, leaving some 40,000 French troops at the mercy of the advancing German army. London's main railway station, Waterloo, is a symbol of defeat in 1815. The main Parisian railway station, the Gare d'Austerlitz, was built in honor of the famous victory of Emperor Napoleon in 1805, after which a year later he finally destroyed the Holy Roman Empire occupied at that time by Germany.

History of France: Catholicism and Protestantism

Although France has no official religion, 90% of its population is Catholic. In the second half of the 16th century, a civil war broke out between the nobles on religious grounds: Catholics against Protestants (or Huguenots, as they were then called). France was ruled by only one Protestant king - Henry of Navarre, who became the first king of the Bourbon dynasty under the name Henry IV. He made peace between Catholics and Protestants by converting to Catholicism, which was an indispensable condition for his ascension to the throne. His words: “worth a mass” have reached us through many centuries. By putting an end to the bloody European wars of religion, Henry IV guaranteed Protestants freedom of religion and personal security. In 1610, he was stabbed to death by a Catholic fanatic.

In subsequent years, the rights of Protestants were again infringed, and in 1685, at the same time as Louis XIV signed the Edict of Nantes, they were expelled from France. This led to the mass immigration of 400 thousand Huguenots to the Netherlands, England, Germany, South Carolina, Canada and even far away South Africa. Some Loire castles still have secret underground passages leading from the fortresses to the ports of Nantes, where in those distant times boats were moored on which the Huguenots could hide.

In 1764, persecution of Protestants virtually ceased in exchange for leniency towards French Catholic settlers in Canada. And in 1788, after the American Revolutionary War, Jefferson and Lafayette received an official pardon for French Protestants.

In 1797, the equality ideals of the French Revolution were finally realized and religious discrimination was brought to an end in France. In 1802, the Huguenot Church was officially recognized. The Republican slogan "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity" adorns monuments, coins, school buildings and municipalities throughout France to this day.

History of France: Bourbon Dynasty

The greatest French monarch, Louis XIV, spent more than seventy years on the throne, from 1643 to 1715. At a time when England was in a state of civil war, as a result of which King Charles I was executed, Louis XIV, by so-called divine right, became. He suppressed the uprising of the nobles, supported by the inhabitants, and put an end to civil war, called the Fronde, establishing complete control over the entire country and centralizing state power in your own hands.

Louis XIV was considered a patron of the arts - under him, the arts, science and literature of France experienced their golden age. This was the era of the heyday of French classical drama by Corneille, Racine and Moliere, whose plays are still performed in traditional style at the Comedy Française theater. Under Louis XIV, she became an example for all civilized Europe.

The son of the Sun King, the frivolous and dissolute Louis XV, abandoned the affairs of the state, having fun and wasting his life. He became famous for his love affairs. One of the favorites - Madame de Pompadour - was actually prime minister for almost twenty years. The government changed frequently during this period, and a series of protracted wars practically ruined the country.

His descendant Louis XVI was a kind-hearted but weak-willed ruler who was dethroned during the Great french revolution and executed in 1793. In the same year, his wife, the Austrian princess Marie Antoinette, took the throne. Her son Louis XVII died of illness in Temple prison in 1795.

History of France: revolution of 1789-1799

The revolution of 1789 was a turning point in. In May of that year, Louis XVI convened a meeting of the long-dormant States General (French parliament) at Versailles in order to discuss government reforms. financial system. During this meeting, desperate representatives of the third estate (three estates: nobility, clergy and the common people), who realized that they would never be able to draw the attention of the authorities to poverty and economic instability and achieve recognition of the rights of the growing urban middle class, unilaterally proclaimed themselves as the National Assembly and took over the famous "ballroom" to draw up a new constitution.

Rumors of royal plans to disperse this meeting reached the rebels in , and they stormed the Bastille prison - a symbol of Bourbon despotism. The revolutionaries were joined by the army, and thus a relatively limited uprising grew into a mass movement that overthrew the old regime and created a democratic republic in its place. This significant event celebrated on July 14th. This day is named Bastille Day.

The National Assembly abolished the feudal system and adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. In order to accumulate funds, it confiscated church property and transferred the clergy to state support. Local government was transformed into legislative, executive and judicial powers, and this was enshrined in Europe's first written Constitution, based on the ideas of rationalism inherited from French philosophers.

In 1791, Louis XVI tried to escape from, but was caught. His hopes of returning to power were strengthened by England and Prussia, who supported the monarchy, and Louis tried to enter into a conspiracy with them, for which he was sentenced to death. The government was dispersed, a National Assembly was elected by popular vote, and a republic was proclaimed on September 22, 1792.

The National Assembly included moderate republicans - Girondins, and radical ones - Jacobins. But in 1793 it resigned and was replaced by the Committee of Public Safety, headed by the extremist Jacobin Robespierre. Thus began the reign of terror. It was then that the guillotine began to be used to behead aristocrats and revolutionaries, which left an indelible bloody mark on history. The instability, violence and mass executions that characterized the subsequent revolutionary regime also inspired writers to write large number short stories and novels, of which perhaps the most famous is The Scarlet Pimpernel.

In 1794, Robespierre himself was removed from power and executed, and instead of his Committee, an executive Directory was created, consisting of five members. France's desire to spread the principles of revolution throughout the world and the determination of England, Austria and Russia to resist it led to another European war and produced one of the key figures of French history - Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1799, the Directory was overthrown in a coup d'etat and a Consulate was established. The young general Napoleon was appointed first consul and given special powers.

History of France: the empire of Napoleon Bonaparte

Born in Corsica in 1796, he began with a low rank in the revolutionary army and became one of its most brilliant generals, winning a series of victories over the anti-revolutionary forces of continental Europe and practically invading England. Franco-Spanish navy was defeated by the British naval forces in 1805 at the Battle of Trafalgar off the southwestern coast of Spain. The famous English admiral Nelson died in this battle. Napoleon, who had not accepted defeat, immediately left to rally his ground forces and, two months later, defeated the Austrians and Russians at Austerlitz. The following year he completely defeated the Prussians at Jena.

Napoleon restored law and order throughout France and carried out internal reforms, including the founding of the Bank of France and the agreement, or Concordat, with Catholic Church. In 1802, the grateful people made him consul for life. Two years later, in the presence of Pope Pius VII, he personally crowned himself Emperor of France in Notre Dame Cathedral, thus becoming a symbolic descendant of Charlemagne. It is believed that the young Beethoven was so outraged by this act that he even crossed out the dedication to Napoleon from the draft of his Eroica Symphony.

From 1799 to 1815, Napoleon conquered Europe, simultaneously strengthening his position by marrying off his sisters to heads of various states. The empire he created in Western Europe was unlike any other, governing according to the founding principles of the French Revolution and imposing them even on his enemies. Its subjects gained a completely new experience of life in a centralized modern state.

Unable to outmatch the British at sea, Napoleon launched an economic campaign against the British economy, trade and industry known as the Continental System. But it turned out that maintaining such a war is quite difficult. Then, in 1812, came the disastrous invasion of Russia, during which his great army of 600,000 soldiers was destroyed by the Russian winter, followed by defeats in Germany and Spain, after which the combined armies of England, Russia, Austria and Prussia invaded France in 1814.

Napoleon was removed from power and exiled to the island of Elba, which is located in the Mediterranean Sea. In 1815 he escaped, landed at Cannes and marched in triumph north to. His decisive battle was the Battle of Waterloo in Belgium, where the Emperor finally surrendered to the combined forces of the coalition under the command of Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington. He died in exile on the island of Saint Helena, located in the south Atlantic Ocean, in 1821.

Napoleon left behind a great legacy - the Napoleonic Code - a set of legal norms that still remains the basis of French legislation and, in a sense, a symbol of the cultural greatness of France.

Although Bourbon rule was restored in 1815, it did not last long. Transformations were inevitable; they were inspired primarily by the ideas of revolutionary liberalism and nationalism; poets and writers preaching romantic idealism, and social changes brought about by the brewing industrial revolution.

On July 14, 1982, France celebrated the bicentenary of the Republic by picnicking across the country, from north to south, on identical blankets laid out in a line 960 kilometers long. Today, the population of France, like a “patchwork quilt”, is woven from various nationalities - immigrants from southern Europe, North Africa and Vietnam. The total number of immigrants is approximately 2.5 million, which is a small but significant part of total number population.

The territory of France has been inhabited by people since ancient times. The first known people to settle on it were the Celts (from the 6th-5th centuries BC). Their Roman name - Gauls - gave the name to the country (the ancient name of France is Gaul). In mid. 1st century BC Gaul, conquered by Rome, became its province. For 500 years, the development of Gaul went under the sign of Roman culture - general, political, legal, economic. In the 2nd-4th centuries. AD Christianity spread in Gaul.

In con. 5th century Gaul, conquered by the Germanic Frankish tribes, became known as the Frankish Kingdom. The leader of the Franks was a talented military leader, an intelligent and prudent politician, Clovis from the Merovingian dynasty. He basically preserved Roman laws and established social relations, the first of the Germanic leaders in the former Roman Empire to form an alliance with the Roman Catholic Church. The mixing of the Franks with the Gallo-Roman population and the merging of their cultures created a kind of synthesis - the basis for the formation of the future French nation.

Since the death of Clovis in the beginning. 6th century The Frankish kingdom was subject to continuous divisions and reunifications, and was the scene of countless wars of various branches of the Merovingians. K ser. 8th century they have lost power. Charlemagne, who gave the name to the new Carolingian dynasty, founded a huge empire consisting of almost all of modern France, part of Germany and, as tributaries, Northern and Central Italy and the Western Slavs. After his death and the division of the empire (843), the West Frankish kingdom emerged as an independent state. This year is considered the starting point of French history.

K con. 10th century the Carolingian dynasty was interrupted; Hugo Capet was elected king of the Franks. The Capetians (their various branches) that originated from him reigned until the Great French Revolution (1789). In the 10th century their kingdom became known as France.

France of the era of the first Capetians, formally united, was actually divided into a number of independent feudal estates. The kings' desire for centralization ensured gradual overcoming feudal fragmentation and the formation of a united nation. The hereditary possession of the kings (domain) expanded through dynastic marriages and conquests. Endless wars and the needs of the growing state apparatus required more and more financial resources. K con. 13th century taxation of the clergy caused a sharp protest from Pope Boniface. Trying to enlist the support of the population in the fight against the pope, King Philip IV the Fair (1285-1303) convened the Estates General in 1302 - representation of all 3 estates. So France became a class monarchy.

To the beginning 14th century France was the most powerful state Western Europe. But its further development was slowed down due to the Hundred Years' War with England (1337-1453), which took place entirely on French territory. By 1415 the British had captured almost everything and threatened its existence as a sovereign state. However, under the leadership of Joan of Arc, French troops achieved a turning point in military operations, which ultimately led to the victory of the French and the expulsion of the British.

K con. 15th century the completion of centralization determined the autonomy of the royal financial apparatus from class representation and the actual cessation of the activities of the Estates General. The transformation of class into absolute began.

In con. 15 - mid. 16th century France, trying to achieve hegemony in Europe and annex the North, fought the Italian Wars (1494-1559) with the Holy Roman Empire. Without bringing any political results, they completely depleted France's financial resources, which led to a sharp deterioration in the country's economic situation. The growth of social protest was closely intertwined with the spread of reform ideas. The split of the population into Catholics and Protestants (Huguenots) resulted in long-term Religious wars(1562-91), culminating in the massacre of Huguenots in Paris (St. Bartholomew's Night, 1572). In 1591, a representative of the younger branch of the Capetians, Henry Bourbon, a Huguenot leader who converted to Catholicism, was proclaimed king of France under the name of Henry IV. The Edict of Nantes (1598), which he issued, equalized the rights of Catholics and Huguenots, putting an end to confrontation on religious grounds.

17th century was a time of strengthening of French absolutism. In the 1st third of it, Cardinal Richelieu, who actually ruled the country under Louis XIII, basically eradicated the noble opposition; its last manifestation was the Fronde - a mass movement led by the princes of the blood (1648-53), after the defeat of which the great nobility lost political significance. Absolutism reached its peak during the independent reign of Louis XIV (1661-1715). Under him, the nobility was not allowed to govern the country; it was carried out by the “Sun King” himself, who relied on secretaries of state and the Comptroller General of Finance (this post was held for 20 years by J.B. Colbert, an outstanding financier and mercantilist who did a lot for the development of French industry and trade).

In the 17th century France waged wars in Europe aimed either at eliminating the dominance of other states ( Thirty Years' War), or to ensure their own hegemony (with Spain in 1659, the Dutch Wars in 1672-78 and 1688-97). All territorial gains gained during the Dutch Wars were lost as a result of the War of the Spanish Succession (1701-14).

From the 2nd half. 18th century absolutism, which had become obsolete, experienced acute spiritual and economic crisis. In the spiritual sphere, its expression was the appearance of a galaxy of philosophers and writers who rethought the acute problems of social life (the Age of Enlightenment). In the economy, persistent budget deficits, prolonged increases in taxes and prices, coupled with prolonged crop failures, caused mass impoverishment and starvation.

In 1789, in an atmosphere of sharp aggravation of the socio-economic situation, the Estates General was convened under the Third Estate (merchants and artisans) after a many-year break. Deputies from the Third Estate declared themselves a National Assembly (June 17, 1789), and then a Constituent Assembly, which adopted the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. The rebellious people took and destroyed the symbol of the “old regime”, the royal prison Bastille (July 14, 1789). In August 1792, the monarchy was overthrown (King Louis XVI was executed); in September, the Republic was proclaimed. The uprising of the extreme left of its supporters led to the establishment of the bloody Jacobin dictatorship (June 1793 - July 1794). After the coup of July 27-28, 1794, power passed to the more moderate Thermidorians, and in 1795 to the Directory. New revolution, which led the Directory to the fall (November 1799), turned France into a Consulate: the government was concentrated in the hands of 3 consuls; Napoleon Bonaparte assumed the functions of First Consul. In 1804 Bonaparte was proclaimed emperor, France turned into an empire.

During the period of the Consulate and the Empire there were continuous Napoleonic wars. Constant conscription into the army, rising taxes, and the unsuccessful Continental Blockade depleted France's strength; The defeat of Napoleonic troops (Great Army) in Russia and Europe (1813-14) accelerated the collapse of the empire. In 1814 Napoleon abdicated the throne; The Bourbons returned to power. France became a (constitutional) monarchy again. Napoleon's attempt to regain his throne (1815) was unsuccessful. According to the decisions of the Congress of Vienna (1815), France was returned to the borders of 1790. But the main achievements of the revolution - the abolition of class privileges and feudal duties, the transfer of land to peasants, legal reforms (Civil and other Napoleonic codes) - were not canceled.

In the 1st half. 19th century France was rocked by revolutions. The July Revolution (1830) was caused by attempts by Bourbon supporters (royalists) to restore the “old regime” in its entirety. It cost the power of the main branch of the Bourbons, who were finally overthrown by the revolution of 1848. Napoleon's nephew, Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte, became the president of the newly proclaimed Second Republic. After the coup d'état of 1851 and the subsequent year of military dictatorship, Louis Napoleon was crowned emperor under the name Napoleon III. France became an empire again.

The Second Empire (1852-70) became the period rapid development capitalism (mainly financial speculative), the growth of the labor movement and wars of conquest (Austro-Italian-French, Anglo-French-Chinese, Mexican, war). Defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 and disadvantage (1871) were accompanied by a failed attempt to overthrow the government (Paris Commune).

In 1875 the Constitution of the Third Republic was adopted. In the last quarter of the 19th century. power in France has stabilized. This was an era of widespread external expansion in and southeast asia and the formation of the French colonial empire. The question of the optimal form of government, not fully resolved by the nation, resulted in a fierce struggle between clerical monarchists and anti-clerical republicans. The Dreyfus Affair, which sharply aggravated this conflict, brought France to the brink of civil war.

In the 20th century France entered as a colonial empire, at the same time having an agrarian-industrial economy that lagged behind the leading industrial powers in industrial development. The rapid growth of the labor movement was reflected in the formation in 1905 socialist party(SFIO, French section of the Socialist International). That same year, anti-clericals won a long-term dispute: a law on the separation of church and state was passed. In foreign policy, rapprochement with Russia marked the beginning of the Entente (1907).

On August 3, 1914, France entered World War I, which it ended 4 years later, in November 1918, as a victorious power (along with Great Britain and). The 1918 treaty returned Alsace and Lorraine to France (which had gone to Prussia in the Frankfurt Peace). She also received part of the German colonies in Africa and large reparations.

In 1925, France signed the Locarno Treaties, which guaranteed Germany's western borders. At the same time, colonial wars were fought: in (1925-26) and in Syria (1925-27).

The war, having significantly pushed the development of the previously lagging French industry, ensured acceleration economic development. Positive structural changes in the economy - the transformation of France into an industrial-agrarian power - were accompanied by the growth of the labor movement. In 1920 the French Communist Party (PCF) was founded. The Great Depression began in France later than in other countries and was less acute, but longer lasting. About 1/2 of wage earners were underemployed, and almost 400 thousand were unemployed. Under these conditions, the labor movement intensified. Under the leadership of the PCF, the Popular Front association was created, which won the parliamentary elections of 1936 by a large margin. On June 7, 1936, trade unions and employers signed the Matignon Agreements, which provided for a wage increase of 12%, 2-week paid holidays, the conclusion of collective agreements, the introduction of 40 -hourly working week. The Popular Front was in power until February 1937.

In 1938, French Prime Minister Daladier, together with N. Chamberlain, signed agreements aimed at postponing the war in Europe. But on September 3, 1939, France, fulfilling its allied obligations towards Germany, declared war on Germany. " Strange War"(an inactive stay in the trenches on the fortified Franco-German border - the Maginot Line) lasted several months. In May 1940 German troops bypassed the Maginot Line from the north and entered Paris on June 14, 1940; on June 16, 1940, Prime Minister P. Reynaud transferred power to Marshal A. Petain. According to the truce concluded by Petain, it occupied about 2/3 of French territory. Having moved to the city of Vichy, located in the unoccupied zone, the government pursued a policy of cooperation with the fascist powers. On November 11, 1942, German and Italian troops occupied the non-occupied part of France.

From the beginning of the occupation, the Resistance movement operated in France, the largest organization of which was the National Front created by the PCF. General Charles de Gaulle, who served as Deputy Minister of Defense before the war, spoke on the radio from London on June 18, 1940, calling on all French people to resist the Nazis. De Gaulle, through great efforts, managed to create the Free France movement in London (from July 1942 - Fighting France) and ensure the accession of military units and the administration of a number of French colonies in Africa to it. On June 3, 1943, while in Algeria, de Gaulle formed the French Committee for National Liberation (FCNL). On June 2, 1944, the FKNO, recognized by the USSR, Great Britain and the USA, was transformed into the Provisional Government of the French Republic.

With the landing of Allied troops in Normandy (June 6, 1944), Resistance units went on the offensive throughout the country. During the Paris Uprising (August 1944), the capital was liberated and, in September, all of France.

Extremely difficult after release economic situation combined with the high prestige of the communists and socialists, who did a lot for victory, guaranteed them massive voter support. The left was in power from 1945-47. In 1946, the Constitution of the IV Republic was adopted, which provided for the responsibility of the government to parliament (parliamentary republic). The Constitution proclaimed, along with civil liberties, socio-economic rights: to work, rest, health care, etc. Widespread nationalization was carried out. In May 1947, when the communists left the government and were replaced by representatives of the Rally of the French People party created by de Gaulle, the government course moved to the right. In 1948, an agreement on Franco-American cooperation (Marshall Plan) was signed.

In 1946-54, France fought a colonial war in Indochina, which ended with the recognition of the independence of the former colonies. From the beginning 1950s The national liberation movement intensified. Morocco was granted independence (1956). In Algeria since 1954 there have been fighting, where France could not succeed. The war in Algeria again split the country, parties and parliament, causing continuous governmental leapfrog. The attempt of the government of F. Gaillard to grant independence caused a revolt of the Algerian French - supporters of its preservation as part of France, supported by the command French troops in Algeria. They demanded the creation of a government of national salvation headed by de Gaulle. On June 1, 1958, the National Assembly granted de Gaulle the appropriate powers. By September 1958, his team had prepared a draft of a new Constitution, which provided for a radical change in the balance of power between the branches of government in favor of the executive branch. The project was put to a referendum on September 28, 1958; it was approved by 79.25% of the French who took part in the vote. Thus began a new period in the history of France - the V Republic. Charles de Gaulle (1890-1970), one of the outstanding political figures of the 20th century, was elected president of the country. The party he created, the RPR, which in 1958 was transformed into the Union for a New Republic (UNR), became the ruling party.

In 1959, France announced recognition of the right of the Algerian people to self-determination. In 1962, the Evian Agreements on the cessation of hostilities were signed. This meant the final collapse of the French colonial empire, from which all the colonies in Africa had left even earlier (in 1960).

Under de Gaulle's leadership, France pursued an independent foreign policy. She came out military organization NATO (1966), condemned the US intervention in Indochina (1966), took a pro-Arab position during the Arab-Israeli conflict (1967). After de Gaulle's visit to the USSR (1966), a Franco-Soviet political rapprochement emerged.

IN economic sphere the course was taken on the so-called. dirigisme is large-scale government intervention in reproduction. The state often tried to replace business and viewed it as a junior partner in economic activity. This policy, which ensured industrialization from the end. 1950s, towards the end. The 1960s turned out to be ineffective - France began to lag behind both in economic development and social transformations. In May 1968, the country was rocked by an acute socio-political crisis: violent student unrest and a general strike. The President dissolved the National Assembly and called early elections. They showed the strengthening of the position of the UNR (since 1968 - the Union of Democrats for the Republic, YDR), which won St. 70% of mandates. But de Gaulle's personal authority was shaken. In an effort to strengthen it, the president decided to hold a referendum on administrative-territorial reform and Senate reform (April 1969). However, the majority of French people (53.17%) opposed the proposed reforms. On April 28, 1969, de Gaulle resigned.

In 1969, JDR candidate J. Pompidou was elected president of France, and in 1974, after his death, the leader of the center-right party National Federation of Independent Republicans V. Giscard d'Estaing was elected. During their reign, the government was headed by the Gaullists (including J. Chirac in 1974-76). From the end 1960s a gradual shift away from dirigisme began, a number of social reforms were carried out aimed at meeting the demands put forward during the crisis of 1968. In the area foreign policy France continued to pursue an independent line, which, however, was distinguished by less rigidity and greater realism. Relations with the United States normalized. With the lifting of the veto on Britain's accession to the EU (1971), France's efforts to expand European integration intensified. Soviet-French relations continued to develop; France maintained its focus on détente and strengthening security in Europe.

The first “oil shock” of 1973-74 reversed the trend of accelerated economic development in France; the second (1981) - the “trend of power”: it passed from the right, in whose hands it had been since 1958, to the socialists. IN modern history France has entered a modern period - a period of “coexistence”, political and economic instability, strengthening the position of business, and gradual modernization of society.