Linguistic and extralinguistic factors that shaped the phonetic and grammatical structure of modern English. Linguistic and extralinguistic factors in stylistics Extralinguistic factors in language development

The ability to persuade has always been valued by society. The increasing role of influencing speech in the life of society led to the emergence of a doctrine that developed the theory of this type of speech activity. The speaker’s desire to change the listener’s behavior can concern various aspects of his life: to convince him to vote for the right deputy, to persuade him to make the right decision in the field of commercial activity, to encourage him to buy certain goods, products, etc. In any case, influencing speech is aimed at extra-linguistic reality, at the sphere of vital interests and needs of the listener.

Introduction 3
1. Extralinguistic factors of public speaking
1.1. Rules for preparing for a performance 4
1.2.Logical structure of speech 8
2. Linguistic factors of public speaking
2.1. Verbal presentation 9
3. Typical mistakes when speaking 13

Conclusion 15

Bibliography 16

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y"> 1.2.Logical structure of the speech

Here are some practical tips to remember and follow when speaking:

Be consistent in your speech. Do not move on to the next point of your speech until you have completed the previous one. Repeatedly returning to the unsaid produces an extremely unfavorable impression.

Start your speech with the most significant provisions, leaving the particular and secondary ones for the end.

Don't waste time on things that aren't necessary and that you can do without in your performance.

Don't repeat yourself. If you consider it necessary to repeat what has been said, please state this specifically. Make it clear that this is intentional repetition.

Do not wander away from the issue being discussed; do not be distracted by extraneous problems, facts, information, examples, etc. that are of little significance for the essence of the matter.

At the end of the speech, summarize what was said and draw conclusions.

2. Linguistic factors of public speaking

2.1. Verbal presentation of the speech

There are special speech actions whose purpose is to establish and maintain contact. “These include: address, greeting, compliment, farewell.” Variants of these speech actions are well developed and are given in manuals on speech etiquette. You should choose several options for each of these actions and master them well in terms of intonation and style. It is possible to start a speech without a greeting or address only at a purely business meeting in a narrow circle of specialists, meetings with whom occur quite often. Appeals can and should be used in the central part of the speech; they activate the attention of listeners.

Since oral speech is irreversible, the speaker must constantly ensure that his speech is easily understood by the listeners the first time. It is the speaker's responsibility to minimize difficulties in understanding speech. In this case, first of all, you should keep in mind some syntactic parameters of the text.

1. Simple sentences and parts complex sentences should not be excessively long. The limit of RAM is limited by the length of a verbal chain, consisting of 5-7 words.

2. Types of constructions that gravitate towards the sphere are more easily perceived colloquial speech. In structure, these constructions are non-common and less common, single-component sentences (definitely personal, indefinitely personal, generalized personal, impersonal, denominative), incomplete, uncomplicated. These constructions can be either independent sentences or parts of complex sentences. Here is an example of such text:

“Reason four: the power of family tradition. A man was born and raised in a mining region, where there is only one breadwinner for everyone - a coal. His father, who died of silicosis, cut coal in the mine for 30 years. The older brother works at the mine face. And now he's going down. And this habitual thing gives the young miner a feeling of security” (AiF. 1998. No. 16).

In order to obtain a text of this type, when writing (or pronouncing) it should be guided by conversational intonation. The intonation pattern of a text is determined by its syntactic structure. Therefore, when focusing on conversational intonation, an appropriate (same as in colloquial speech) syntactic structure of the text is formed.

Long sentences, e.g. significantly common and complicated by participial and participial phrases, plug-in constructions, complex sentences with a large number subordinate parts make it difficult to perceive and are unacceptable for oratorical impact.

3. It is undesirable to use passive voice constructions. Their natural sphere of functioning is the official business style, texts designed primarily for the transmission and preservation of information, and not for impact.

Speech perception is significantly complicated by the use of verbal nouns ending in =nie, as well as others similar to them. Any verbal noun is a collapsed sentence; it is, as it were, a bundle of meaning that requires unfolding and awareness. Therefore, a text with a large number of verbal nouns.

When preparing a speech, you should not abuse the use of terms: do not overload the text with terminology and do not use highly specialized terms.

Contact with the audience will be more successful if the speaker uses a personal type of communication. This type of communication involves constructing a speech when working with an audience in the same way as a conversation with a specific person in direct contact (“live” conversation). The personal type of communication assumes that the speaker clearly indicates his authorship during the speech.

Me: my attitude to the subject of speech, to the interlocutor.

“Experienced speakers use almost all means of language as a means of expressing the author’s self.” However, for such linguistic means as pronouns, particles, introductory words, complex sentences with a subordinate explanatory expression of the author's I is the main functional purpose. Particles (only, even, wives, etc.), despite the small size of the sound material, clearly indicate the presence of the author’s voice in the text, quite often expressing the author’s attitude. Some particles are very expressive, expressive (know to yourself, take it, etc.). Introductory words are used for the same purpose: the expression of the attitude is reflected in them more clearly, definitely. “But, one way or another, even in his unsuccessful poems, in everything that came out of his lips, there was a touch of some kind of divine, ecstatic inspiration, as it happened with the prophesied holy fools in Rus'” (Obshchaya Gazeta. 1998. No. 15).

This text is literally full of pronouns: his, all, that, his, some, this. All these pronouns, as well as the introductory word so and so and the particle, even give the text a sense of the sound of the author's voice.

Thus, when preparing for a speech, we must take care of a convincing, meaningful development of the topic and its good information support. The speech format of the speech should ensure constant contact with the audience and contribute to the rapid and reliable assimilation of the content.

Typical mistakes when speaking

Let's note some typical mistakes, which speakers allow (even against their will).

1. You should not portray or present as stupid, dishonest, inconsistent, or weak-willed those persons whose opinions you are challenging. You cannot follow the statement: “An inconsistent person cannot be right.” It is necessary to analyze the opinion, point of view, views of the opponent, and not his life.

2. “Appealing to the feelings of the audience should not outgrow manipulation of the audience.” Suppose the speech is directed against someone from the city administration and is critical. You should not talk about rampant crime in the city, etc., which causes negative feelings in those listening, and associate them with the name of your opponent if, due to his official duties, he cannot influence the relevant aspects of city life. You should not talk about social and ethnic prejudices, linking them with the social status or nationality of your opponent, playing on the base feelings of part of the audience.

3. One should not identify a person’s views with the views of the group or party to which he belongs. If he is a communist, a member of the LDPR, etc., it is not at all necessary that his views completely coincide with the views of the leader of the party or the party as a whole.

4. You cannot distort the opinions of opponents with whom you are polemicizing or on whose opinions you rely. Particular care should be taken when handling quotations.

5. Do not flaunt your personal qualities, do not exaggerate your role in any events, joint activities, etc.

6. Having expressed the starting points of your point of view, concept, defend them, justify them, prove them. What needs to be proven cannot be taken for granted. Phrases like: clear as day that; Of course, I don’t need to tell you that; no person in their right mind would deny that; I can assure you that.

7. During the speech, you cannot abandon the original (expressed or unspoken) theses, pretending that you “didn’t think so.” You will lose trust.

8. Do not exaggerate beyond common sense the negative results of real or possible actions of your opponents, events, etc. The aggravation of undesirable consequences must be justified.

9. You should not demand that your concept be recognized as correct only on the basis that you think your rationale is convincing.

Conclusion

Oratorical speech is an influential, persuasive speech that is addressed to a wide audience, delivered by a speech professional (speaker) and aims to change the behavior of the audience, its views, beliefs, moods, etc.

For society as a whole, the main goal of language teaching is to teach each member of society to put any socially significant information into the appropriate speech form. Under these conditions, it is natural to grow interest in the problems of old rhetorical science, in the theory of persuasive speech in general.

A speech is a type of oratorical prose. The speaker's task is never limited to presenting a certain amount of information. The speaker is forced, as a rule, to defend his point of view, persuade others to accept it, convince others that he is right, etc. Speeches vary in topic and volume, the goals of the speakers are different, and the audiences to whom they speak are different. However, there are stable, standard methods of speech development of the text of a speech. We have outlined the combination of these techniques in the form of a set of recommendations.

Bibliography:

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Vvedenskaya, L.A. Russian language and speech culture / L.A. Vvedenskaya. – Rostov – on / D.: Phoenix, 2004.- 539 p.
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Zaretskaya, E.P. Rhetoric. Theory and practice of speech communication / E.P. Zaretskaya. – M.: Delo, 1998.- 473 p.
Ivin, A.A. Fundamentals of the theory of argumentation / A.A. Ivin. - M.: graduate School, 1997.- 276 p.
Kokhtev, N.N. Fundamentals of oratory / N.N. Kokhtev. – M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1992.- 240 p.
Culture of Russian speech: Textbook. for universities / Ed. prof. OK. Graudina and prof. E.N. Shiryaeva. - M.: Flinta, 1998. - 560 p.
Lapteva O.A. Theory of modern Russian literary language. – M.: Higher School, 2003.- 357 p.
Lvov, M.R. Rhetoric. Culture of speech / M.R. Lviv. – M.: Academy, 2003.- 272 p.
Russian language and speech culture: Textbook. for universities / Ed. V.D. Chernyak. -M.: Higher School, 2002. -510 p.
Sternin, I.A. Practical rhetoric / I.A. Sternin. - M.: Academy, 2003.- 272 p.
Khazagerov, M.R. General rhetoric / M.R. Khazagerov – Rostov-on/D.: Phoenix, 1999.- 365 p.

Effective speech communication means achieving adequate semantic perception and adequate interpretation of the transmitted message. The correct interpretation is considered to have taken place if the recipient interprets the main idea of the text in accordance with the communicator’s intention. If the recipient has learned for what purpose the text was generated, what exactly the author wanted to say using all the means used, it can be argued that he interpreted the text correctly. Inadequate understanding of oral and written messages by the sender and recipient can lead to serious errors during the development and adoption of decisions and cause unwanted conflicts.

As researchers note, the success of verbal communication and its failures depend not only on the speakers’ choice of linguistic forms. Many extralinguistic (extralinguistic) factors have a great influence on the effectiveness of speech communication. Experts include the need for communication, communicative interest; attuned to the world of the interlocutor, the closeness of the worldviews of the speaker and the listener; the ability of the listener to penetrate into the plan (intention, intention) of the speaker; external circumstances (presence of strangers, physical condition); knowledge of the norms of etiquette speech communication, etc.

It is very important to create a positive communication climate that helps establish contact and mutual understanding in the communication process. According to foreign scientists, the amount of information provided and its accuracy increase in an atmosphere of trust and openness between participants in communication.

The creation of such a climate is facilitated by the observance by the participants of the dialogue of the principle of cooperation of G. P. Grice and the principle of politeness of J. N. Leach, the establishment of partnerships, as well as the application of a number of psychological principles of treatment formulated in scientific and methodological literature. Let's name the rest of them.

The principle of equal security, which implies non-infliction of psychological or other harm to a partner in information exchange. This principle prohibits offensive attacks against the recipient and humiliation of the partner’s self-esteem. Labels, rude words and expressions, offensive remarks, insults, a contemptuous and mocking tone can throw a person out of balance, cause him moral injury and even physical damage to his health, which means preventing the perception of understanding information.

The principle of decentralization means not causing damage to the cause for which the parties entered into interaction. The essence of this principle is that the efforts of communication participants should not be spent on protecting ambitious, egocentric interests. They should be directed to find the optimal solution to the problem. Decentric orientation, in contrast to egocentric one, is characterized by the ability to analyze a situation or problem from the point of view of another person, based not on one’s own interests, but not on the interests of the cause. It is noted that this principle is often violated. Often people, guided by a variety of motives, in the heat of emotions forget about the very subject of discussion.

The principle of adequacy of what is perceived with what is said, that is, not causing damage to what is said by deliberately distorting the meaning. Sometimes participants in communication deliberately distort the opponent’s position, distort the meaning of his words, in order to thus achieve advantages in the conversation. This leads to disagreements and mutual misunderstanding.

The following factors also contribute to the establishment of a favorable climate for verbal communication:

· Recognition not in words, but in deeds, of pluralism of opinions, the presence of different points of view on problems modern life, which is a necessary prerequisite for democratic resolution of issues;

· Providing everyone with the opportunity to exercise their right to express their own point of view;

· Providing equal opportunities to obtain the necessary information to substantiate one’s position;

· Awareness that the need for constructive dialogue is dictated not by the will of individuals, but by the actual situation, which is associated with the solution of vital problems for both sides;

· Determination of a common platform for further interaction and cooperation, the desire to find in the partner’s statements and behavior what unites him and does not separate him, search common points contact.

A necessary condition for effective verbal communication is the ability to listen. This skill is important not only for the recipient, but also for the communicator, since the dialogical nature of communication is recognized as the most effective and preferable.

The main reason for the appearance of destructive elements in the process of communication is stereotypical-dogmatic thinking, intolerance to other people's opinions. The basis for destructiveness can be personal characteristics its participants: selfishness, ambition to compromise, as well as lack of common sense, lack of understanding of the real processes taking place in society.

Interpersonal barriers that arise in the process of verbal communication are often caused by the peculiarities of perception speech means. Serious obstacles in information exchanges are discrepancies in the understanding of the meaning of the words used by the sender and the recipient. This is often due to inaccuracy of word usage, incorrect use polysemantic words, synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms.

Semantic perception largely depends on the linguistic competence of the individual, his speech experience, vocabulary, preparedness to interpret a linguistic message.

A necessary condition for effective communication is the ability to listen.

“The ability to listen is a rare ability and is highly valued,” wrote D. Granin in the novel “Picture”. And this is true. Most people, according to scientists, are poor at listening to others, especially if they do not affect their interests. Research shows that no more than 10 percent of people have the ability to listen to an interlocutor with concentration and restraint, to penetrate into the essence of what is being said, and managers listen with 25 percent effectiveness. Meanwhile, the ability to listen is necessary condition correct understanding of the opponent’s position, correct assessment of the disagreements existing with him, the key to successful negotiations, conversations, an essential element of the culture of business communication.

Listening – This is the process of perceiving, comprehending and understanding the speaker’s speech.

What is listening from a psychological point of view, what are its basic principles and what techniques of so-called good listening should everyone learn?

Listening is the process of perceiving, comprehending and understanding the speech of the speaker. This is the ability to focus on a partner’s speech, the ability to isolate ideas, thoughts, emotions, the attitude of the speaker, and the ability to understand your interlocutor from his message. This is psychological readiness for contact with another person. As experts say, listening is hard work, but also the most valuable gift that you can bestow on another.

The manner of listening, or the so-called listening style, largely depends on the personality of the interlocutors, on the nature of the interests of the listeners, gender, age, and official status of the participants in the communication.

Psychologists have also established significant differences in the behavior of men and women. They believe that in a conversation, men interrupt women almost twice as often. For approximately one third of the conversation, the woman collects her thoughts and tries to restore the course of the interrupted conversation. Men are more likely to focus on the content of the conversation, while women pay more to the communication process itself. Men love themselves. They tend to give ready-made answers too quickly, without listening to the interlocutor to the end and without asking him questions.

Types of hearing:

· Reflex

· Non-reflexive

There are two types of listening. One of them is called non-reflexive. It consists of the ability to listen carefully and not interfere with the interlocutor’s speech with your comments. At first glance, such listening seems passive, but it requires significant physical and psychological effort. Non-reflective listening is usually used in communication situations when one of the interlocutors is deeply excited, wants to express his attitude to a particular event, wants to discuss pressing issues, or has difficulty expressing his problems. However, such a hearing is not always appropriate. After all, silence is not always appropriate. After all, silence is taken as a sign of consent. Non-reflective listening is sometimes misinterpreted as accepting the opponent's position. Therefore, it is much more honest to immediately interrupt the interlocutor and openly express your point of view in order to avoid misunderstandings later.

It is worth keeping in mind that some interlocutors do not have sufficient desire to express their own opinion, while others, on the contrary, expect active support and approval for their words. In such cases, it is recommended to use another type of listening – reflective. Its essence lies in active intervention in the speech of the interlocutor, in helping him express his thoughts and feelings, in creating favorable conditions for communication, in ensuring correct and accurate understanding by interlocutors of each other. It is important to be able to choose the type of listening that is most appropriate in a given communication situation.

Following the principles of good listening will help you establish contact with your interlocutor, understand his point of view, and get to the bottom of your disagreements. Psychologists identify three main principles. One of them sounds like this: “ Try to concentrate on the person who is talking to you; pay attention not only to his words, but also to the sound of his voice, facial expressions, gestures, postures, etc."This will allow you to get additional information about the internal state of the interlocutor, his attitude to the subject of discussion, and his reaction to the partner’s words.

Another important principle Scientists have formulated good listening as follows: “ Show the speaker that you understand him" To implement this principle, it is recommended to use various techniques of reflective listening. You can ask the speaker for clarification using phrases such as: I didn't understand you; Are you not repeaters again?; what do you mean?

It is advisable to formulate the speaker's thoughts in your own words to clarify the message. Paraphrasing usually begins with: what you said could mean...; If we now summarize what you said, then...; your main ideas, as I understand it, are... This creates confidence in the correct perception of the message, especially in situations where there are disagreements between the interlocutors, there is no common point of view, and conflict is brewing.

It is also necessary to pay attention to the following principle of good listening: “ Don't judge, don't give advice" Psychologists say that assessments and advice, even when given with the best intentions, usually limit freedom of expression. And this can reduce the activity of participants in the dialogue, put pressure on the opinions of those present and, as a result, interfere with an effective discussion of the problem.

Unfortunately, these principles are often violated.

Thus, the ability to listen, adherence to the principles of good listening, and the use of appropriate techniques can make communication more fruitful.

Dictionary of sociolinguistic terms

Extralinguistic factors

(Social factors)

Parameters of social (extra-linguistic) reality that determine changes in language, both global and more specific. Global action E.f. leads to changes affecting the entire or significant part of the language subsystem. Events such as decisions to create a written language for a previously unwritten language, legislative and material support the functioning of language in certain areas, determine the emergence of new forms of existence of this language (literary language), the emergence of new functional styles, accompanied by changes in vocabulary (replenishment of the dictionary, development of the semantic structure of words, changes in the valence of words, etc.), in syntax, stylistics. An example of the impact of more private E.f. is the development of new genres, stylistic trends in literature, which determine the emergence of new units in the terminology of literary criticism (conceptualists, mannerism). To E.f. include demographic parameters (size of population speaking a particular language, method of settlement, age differentiation of native speakers, etc.), social structure society, cultural and linguistic features (the presence of written traditions, culturally determined language contacts), etc. The study of the relationships between elements of social, extralinguistic reality (E.f.) and elements of language is the task of sociolinguistic correlative analysis.

internal factors of language development

See also:(language development),

The classification of styles is based on extralinguistic factors: the scope of use of the language, the subject matter determined by it and the goals of communication.

In linguistics - the science of language - a text is understood as a combination of complete sentences related to each other in meaning, as well as with the help of lexical and grammatical means of language. But the text is, rather, not a unit of language, but a unit of speech, since we communicate not with words, or even sentences, but with texts. Every text is a statement. And any statement cannot take place without the one who is speaking, what he is speaking about, where he is speaking, and to whom he is speaking. All these components - the speaker, the subject of communication, the setting of communication, the addressee of communication - constitute a speech situation, or a communication situation.

COMPONENTS OF SPEECH SITUATION (speaker, subject of communication, setting of communication, addressee of communication) represent EXTRALINGUISTIC FACTORS OF THE TEXT.

The Latin word EXTRA- means SUPER-, that which lies beyond, in this case beyond the boundaries of linguistics, that which is not studied by linguistics.

THE SPEAKER is the main component of a speech situation, since extralinguistic and linguistic (linguistic) means become speech only when they are combined with the speaker.

It determines the selection of language means that formulate the content of the utterance.

Associated with the speaker is the PURPOSE OF THE STATEMENT, or SPEECH INTENTION. There are three types of speech intention:

INFORM (provide information),

ACTIVATE (induce to some action),

ARGUMENT (convince the interlocutor).

Speech intention determines the speaker’s attitude towards the message, which is expressed in assessing the content of the statement, highlighting what is given the greatest importance in the message.

THE SUBJECT OF COMMUNICATION is what is said. It determines the content of the statement and gives it meaning.

COMMUNICATION SETTINGS are those conditions in which communication takes place, for example, in the classroom, on the street, at a party. The communication environment influences the choice of speech form: monologue or dialogic, as well as the aesthetic side of speech: forms of address, style of communication.

There are formal and informal communication settings.

ADDRESSEE OF COMMUNICATION - the one to whom the message is addressed. Famous Russian scientist M.M. Bakhtin believed that any statement has an addressee, even if it is addressed to oneself. There is no text to nowhere.

If you want your words to be heard, you need to assess the recipient’s ability to understand: the general fund of knowledge, awareness on this issue, psychological state at the moment, character traits. Taking into account the identity of the addressee is an important factor effective communication.

PRACTICAL CONCLUSIONS

A speech situation is a set of extralinguistic conditions necessary for the implementation of an utterance. Knowledge of the content of each component of a speech situation and its role in creating an utterance will make the message effective, i.e. influencing the consciousness or behavior of the addressee. To do this, you need to be able to: 1) determine the purpose of the utterance in relation to the subject and setting of communication and subordinate the utterance to this speech intention; 2) determine the relationship between the participants in communication, i.e. between the speaker and the addressee.

LINGUISTIC FACTORS.

A text cannot exist without language units, i.e. without the words themselves, united according to the laws of meaning and grammar. The linguistic laws of text structure are reflected in two formations typical of all texts: functional-semantic types of speech and complex syntactic wholes.

FUNCTIONAL-SENSITIVE TYPES OF SPEECH act as means of programming utterances. They form a thought, organize it, give it integrity and completeness. They can function independently in speech, but more often different types of speech participate in the construction of a complex text, determining its composition. Therefore, they are also called compositional speech forms.

There are three types of speech: DESCRIPTION, NARRATION, DISTRIBUTION

JUDGMENT. They transmit different relationships. The description and narration are based on real facts of reality, i.e. what can be observed in life, in reasoning, this fact of reality is comprehended and processed in consciousness.

29 .Oratory: types and types, features of speech.

Since ancient times, oratory has been considered effective method impact on people. Its foundations originated in Ancient Greece, when people demonstrated their works, performing in the agora or in ancient theaters. Since then, this art has undergone some changes that relate to the performance of speech, but its purpose and basic structure are still appreciated today. Basics oratory There are several rhetorical canons according to which speech is structured. They are appropriate not only in public speaking, but also in everyday life, during a normal conversation. By following them, a person will be able to competently express his thoughts, which will be accessible to others.

The first stage is intervention. Here the speaker selects material, which will then be processed (understood) and demonstrated. It is at this first stage of speech construction that the subject of coverage is highlighted, i.e. what the author will talk about. The second stage is disposition. Here the object becomes a concept, and it is included in the system of other knowledge. During this period, a compositional scheme of the speech is formed, logical connections between the objects of analysis are highlighted. Thus, disposition acts as a guarantor of the correct conceptual apparatus of speech. The third stage is elocation. Here the author puts the selected concepts into verbal form. Verbalization can occur through illogical means, which often become the main instrument of influence: tropes and figures. The fourth stage is the action. Here the author practices the future speech, taking into account the intonation of the voice, pauses and the pronunciation of the words themselves. Also at this stage, gestures and facial expressions are determined that will allow you to harmoniously convey information and correctly influence the audience. The fifth stage is memorial. Now the speaker needs to memorize his speech in order to quickly navigate what he intends to say. Genera and types of oratory Modern rhetoric has several genera and types of eloquence. They depend on the area for which the speech is intended, the situation in which it is implemented, as well as the topic and form. Gender is the broadest concept; it is determined depending on the object of speech, purpose, form and situation. Oratory speech can be classified into several types. Namely: academic; socio-political; spiritual; social and household; judicial Oratorical speech is classified into types depending on its type. They specify the area, situation and audience of the speech. Academic speech is represented by lectures (school or university), scientific reports, reviews, reports, as well as speeches on popular science topics. These types are characterized by information richness, a minimum use of expressive expressions, and handling of facts. The presentation is based on accessible language for a wide audience with the absence of overly specific concepts, the meaning of which may be unknown to listeners. Judicial oratory is represented by two types: prosecutorial and lawyer. They are characterized by emotional intensity, which is necessarily supported by arguments. Socio-political speech has many types, the most common of which are agitation and rally speech, which in democratic countries can often be heard on the eve of elections. This type of public speech also includes diplomatic, parliamentary, military-patriotic speech and report. They are characterized by expressive vocabulary, unexpected comparisons combined with statistical data and other objective facts. The social and everyday type of speech is represented by 5 types: anniversary speech, welcoming speech, table speech, funeral speech and reception speech. They are characterized by emotional exclamations and personal assessments. Spiritual speech has two types: sermon and church (official). They are full of Old Church Slavonicisms, are instructive in nature and are not necessarily based on specific facts. Thus, there are quite a lot of species and genera public speech. They, in turn, are divided into genres, which determine the volume and style of the text. However, no matter what type or genre the speech belongs to, it must contain useful and accessible information, and the author must have good command of facial expressions, gestures and voice in order to correctly and effectively convey what he intends to say.