The main stages of the development of immunology. Periods of development of immunology

Immunology as a specific area of research arose from the practical need to combat infectious diseases. As a separate scientific direction immunology emerged only in the second half of the twentieth century. The history of immunology as an applied branch of infectious pathology and microbiology is much longer. Centuries-long observations of infectious diseases laid the foundation for modern immunology: despite the widespread spread of the plague (5th century BC), no one fell ill twice, at least fatally, and those who had recovered were used to bury corpses.

There is evidence that the first smallpox vaccinations were carried out in China a thousand years before the birth of Christ. Inoculation of the contents of smallpox pustules healthy people in order to protect them from the acute form of the disease, it then spread to India, Asia Minor, Europe, and the Caucasus.

Inoculation was replaced by the vaccination method (from the Latin “vacca” - cow), developed at the end of the 18th century. English doctor E. Jenner. He drew attention to the fact that milkmaids who cared for sick animals sometimes became ill with cowpox in an extremely mild form, but never suffered from smallpox. Such an observation gave the researcher real opportunity fight against human disease. In 1796, 30 years after the start of his research, E. Jenner decided to try the cowpox vaccination method. The experiment was successful and since then the E. Jenner method of vaccination has found wide use throughout the world.

The origin of infectious immunology is associated with the name of an outstanding French scientist Louis Pasteur. The first step towards a targeted search for vaccine preparations that create stable immunity to infection was made after Pasteur’s observation of the pathogenicity of the causative agent of chicken cholera. From this observation, Pasteur concluded: an aged culture, having lost its pathogenicity, remains capable of creating resistance to infection. This determined for many decades the principle of creating vaccine material - in one way or another (for each pathogen, its own) to achieve a reduction in the virulence of the pathogen while maintaining its immunogenic properties.
Although Pasteur developed the principles of vaccination and successfully applied them in practice, he was not aware of the factors involved in the process of protection against infection. The first to shed light on one of the mechanisms of immunity to infection were Emil von Behring And Kitazato. They demonstrated that serum from mice pre-immunized with tetanus toxin, injected into intact animals, protected the latter from a lethal dose of the toxin. The serum factor formed as a result of immunization - antitoxin - was the first specific antibody discovered. The work of these scientists laid the foundation for the study of the mechanisms of humoral immunity.
The Russian evolutionary biologist was at the origins of knowledge of the issues of cellular immunity Ilya Ilyich Mechnikov. In 1883, he made the first report on the phagocytic theory of immunity at a congress of doctors and natural scientists in Odessa. Humans have amoeboid motile cells - macrophages and neutrophils. They “eat” a special kind of food - pathogenic microbes, the function of these cells is to fight microbial aggression.
In parallel with Mechnikov, the German pharmacologist developed his theory of immune defense against infection Paul Ehrlich. He was aware of the fact that protein substances appear in the blood serum of animals infected with bacteria that can kill pathogenic microorganisms. These substances were subsequently called “antibodies” by him. The most characteristic property antibodies - this is their pronounced specificity. Having formed as a protective agent against one microorganism, they neutralize and destroy only it, remaining indifferent to others.
Two theories - phagocytic (cellular) and humoral - during the period of their emergence stood in antagonistic positions. The schools of Mechnikov and Ehrlich fought for scientific truth, not suspecting that every blow and every parry brought their opponents closer together. In 1908, both scientists were simultaneously awarded Nobel Prize.
By the end of the 40s and the beginning of the 50s of the twentieth century, the first period of development of immunology was ending. An entire arsenal of vaccines has been created against a wide range of infectious diseases. Epidemics of plague, cholera, and smallpox no longer destroyed hundreds of thousands of people. Isolated, sporadic outbreaks of these diseases still occur, but these are only very local cases that do not have epidemiological, much less pandemic significance.

Rice. 1. Immunology scientists: E. Jenner, L. Pasteur, I.I. Mechnikov, P. Erlich.

New stage development of immunology is associated primarily with the name of the outstanding Australian scientist M.F. Burnet. It was he who largely determined the face of modern immunology. Considering immunity as a reaction aimed at differentiating everything “one’s own” from everything “alien,” he raised the question of the importance of immune mechanisms in maintaining the genetic integrity of the organism during the period of individual (ontogenetic) development. It was Burnet who drew attention to the lymphocyte as the main participant in a specific immune response, giving it the name “immunocyte.” It was Burnet who predicted, and the Englishman Peter Medawar and Czech Milan Hasek experimentally confirmed the state opposite to immune reactivity - tolerance. It was Burnet who pointed out the special role of the thymus in the formation of the immune response. And finally, Burnet remained in the history of immunology as the creator of the clonal selection theory of immunity. The formula of this theory is simple: one clone of lymphocytes is capable of responding only to one specific, antigenic, specific determinant.
Burnet’s views on immunity as a reaction of the body that distinguishes everything “our own” from everything “foreign” deserve special attention. After Medawar proved the immunological nature of rejection of a foreign transplant, after the accumulation of facts on the immunology of malignant neoplasms, it became obvious that the immune reaction develops not only to microbial antigens, but also when there are any, albeit minor, antigenic differences between the body and that biological material (transplant, malignant tumor) with which he meets.

Today we know, if not all, then many of the mechanisms of the immune response. We know the genetic basis of the surprisingly wide variety of antibodies and antigen recognition receptors. We know which cell types are responsible for the cellular and humoral forms of the immune response; the mechanisms of increased reactivity and tolerance are largely understood; much is known about antigen recognition processes; molecular participants in intercellular relationships (cytokines) were identified; in evolutionary immunology, the concept of the role of specific immunity in the progressive evolution of animals was formed. Immunology how independent section science stood on a par with truly biological disciplines: molecular biology, genetics, cytology, physiology, evolutionary teaching.

/ 62
Worst Best

Immunology arose as a part of microbiology as a result of its practical application for the treatment of infectious diseases, so infectious immunology developed at the first stage.

Since its inception, immunology has closely interacted with other sciences: genetics, physiology, biochemistry, cytology. Over the past 30 years, it has become a vast, independent fundamental biological science. Medical immunology practically solves most issues of diagnosis and treatment of diseases and in this regard occupies a central place in medicine.

The origins of immunology lie in the observations of ancient peoples. In Egypt and Greece it was known that people did not get the plague again and therefore those who had been ill were involved in caring for the sick. Several centuries ago in Turkey, the Middle East, and China, to prevent smallpox, pus from dried smallpox ulcers was rubbed into the skin or mucous membranes of the nose. Such infection usually caused a mild form of smallpox and created immunity to re-infection. This method of preventing smallpox is called variolation. However, it later turned out that this method is far from safe, as it sometimes leads to severe smallpox and death.

Since ancient times, people have known that patients who have had cowpox do not develop natural illness. For 25 years, the English doctor E. Jenner checked these data through numerous studies and came to the conclusion that infection with cowpox prevents smallpox. In 1796, Jenner inoculated material from the smallpox abscess of a woman infected with cowpox into an eight-year-old boy. A few days later, the boy developed a fever and ulcers appeared at the site of injection of the infectious material. Then these phenomena disappeared. After 6 weeks, he was injected with material from pustules from a smallpox patient, but the boy did not get sick. With this experiment, Jenner first established the possibility of preventing smallpox. The method became widespread in Europe, as a result of which the incidence of smallpox sharply decreased.

Science-based methods for preventing infectious diseases were developed by the great French scientist Louis Pasteur. In 1880, Pasteur studied chicken cholera. In one of the experiments, to infect chickens, he used an old culture of the causative agent of chicken cholera, stored long time at a temperature of 37° C. Some of the infected chickens survived, and after re-infection with a fresh culture, the chickens did not die. Pasteur reported this experiment to the Paris Academy of Sciences and suggested that weakened microbes could be used to prevent infectious diseases. The weakened cultures were called vaccines (Vacca - cow), and the method of prevention was called vaccination. Subsequently, Pasteur obtained vaccines against anthrax and rabies. The principles of obtaining vaccines and methods of their use developed by this scientist have been successfully used for 100 years to prevent infectious diseases. However, how immunity is created was not known for a long time.

The development of immunology as a science was greatly facilitated by the research of I. I. Mechnikov. By education, I. I. Mechnikov was a zoologist; he worked in Odessa, then in Italy and France, at the Pasteur Institute. While working in Italy, he conducted experiments with starfish larvae, which he injected with rose thorns. At the same time, he observed that mobile cells accumulated around the spines, enveloping and capturing them. I. I. Mechnikov developed the phagocytic theory of immunity, according to which the body is freed from microbes with the help of phagocytes.

The second direction in the development of immunology was represented by the German scientist P. Ehrlich. He believed that the main protective mechanism against infection is the humoral factors of blood serum - antibodies. TO end of the 19th century century, it became clear that these two points of view do not exclude, but complement each other. In 1908, I. I. Mechnikov and P. Ehrlich were awarded the Nobel Prize for the development of the doctrine of immunity.

The last two decades of the 19th century were marked by outstanding discoveries in the field of medical microbiology and immunology. Antitoxic antitetanus and antidiphtheria sera were obtained by immunizing rabbits with diphtheria and tetanus toxin. Thus, for the first time in medical practice, it appeared effective remedy for the treatment and prevention of diphtheria and tetanus. In 1902, Bering was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery.

In 1885, Buchner and co-workers found that microbes do not multiply in fresh blood serum, that is, it has bacteriostatic and bactericidal properties. The substance contained in the serum was destroyed when heated and stored for a long time. Ehrlich later called this substance complement.

The Belgian scientist J. Bordet showed that the bactericidal properties of serum are determined not only by complement, but also by specific antibodies.

In 1896, Gruber and Durham established that when animals are immunized with various microbes, antibodies are formed in the serum, which cause sticking (agglutination) of these microbes. These discoveries expanded the understanding of the mechanisms of antibacterial protection and made it possible to apply the agglutination reaction for practical purposes. Already in 1895, Vidal used the agglutination test to diagnose typhoid fever. Somewhat later, serological methods for diagnosing tularemia, brucellosis, syphilis and many other diseases were developed, which are widely used in the clinic of infectious diseases to this day.

In 1897, Krause discovered that in addition to agglutinins, when animals are immunized with microbes, precipitins are also formed, which combine not only with microbial cells, but also with the products of their metabolism. As a result, insoluble immune complexes are formed, which precipitate.

In 1899, Ehrlich and Morgenroth established that red blood cells adsorb specific antibodies on their surface and are lysed when complement is added to them. This fact was important for understanding the mechanism of the antigen-antibody reaction.

The beginning of the 20th century was marked by a discovery that transformed immunology from an empirical science into a fundamental one, and laid the foundation for the development of non-infectious immunology. In 1902, the Austrian scientist K. Landsteiner developed a method for conjugating haptens with carriers. This opened up fundamentally new opportunities for studying the antigenic structure of substances and the processes of antibody synthesis. Landsteiner discovered the isoantigens of human erythrocytes of the ABO system and blood group. It became clear that there is heterogeneity in the antigenic structure of different organisms (antigenic individuality), and that immunity is a biological phenomenon that is directly related to evolution.

In 1902, French scientists Richet and Portier discovered the phenomenon of anaphylaxis, on the basis of which the doctrine of allergies was subsequently created.

In 1923, Gleni and Ramon discovered the possibility of converting bacterial exotoxins under the influence of formalin into non-toxic substances - toxoids with antigenic properties. This allowed the use of toxoids as vaccines.

Serological research methods are used in another direction - for the classification of bacteria. Using antipneumococcal sera, Griffith in 1928 divided pneumococci into 4 types, and Lensfield, using antisera against group-specific antigens, classified all streptococci into 17 serological groups. Many types of bacteria and viruses have already been classified according to their antigenic properties.

A new stage in the development of immunology began in 1953 with the research of English scientists Billingham, Brent, Medawar and the Czech scientist Hasek on the reproduction of tolerance. Based on the idea expressed in 1949 by Burnet and further developed in the Jerne hypothesis that the ability to distinguish between self and foreign antigens is not innate, but is formed in the embryonic and postnatal periods, Medawar and his colleagues in the early sixties obtained tolerance to skin transplants in mice. Tolerance to donor skin grafts occurred in mature mice if they were injected with donor lymphoid cells during the embryonic period. Such recipients, having become sexually mature, did not reject skin grafts from donors of the same genetic line. For this discovery, Burnet and Medawar were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1960.

A sharp rise in interest in immunology is associated with the creation in 1959 of the clonal-selection theory of immunity by F. Burnet, a researcher who made a huge contribution to the development of immunology. According to this theory, the immune system oversees the constancy of the cellular composition of the body and the destruction of mutant cells. Burnet's clonal selection theory was the basis for the construction of new hypotheses and assumptions.

In the studies of L.A. Zilber and his colleagues, carried out in 1951-1956, a viral-immunological theory of the origin of cancer was created, according to which a provirus integrated into the genome of a cell causes its transformation into a cancer cell.

In 1959, the English scientist R. Porter studied the molecular structure of antibodies and showed that the gamma globulin molecule consists of two light and two heavy polypeptide chains connected by disulfide bonds.

Subsequently, the molecular structure of antibodies was clarified, the sequence of amino acids in the light and heavy chains was established, immunoglobulins were divided into classes and subclasses, and important data on their physicochemical and biological properties. For research on molecular structure antibodies R. Porter and the American scientist D. Edelman were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972.

Back in the 30s, A. Komza discovered that removal of the thymus leads to impaired immunity. However, the true significance of this organ was clarified after the Australian scientist J. Miller performed neonatal thymectomy in mice in 1961, after which a specific syndrome of immunological deficiency, primarily cellular immunity, developed. Numerous studies have shown that the thymus is the central organ of immunity. Interest in the thymus increased especially sharply after the discovery of its hormones, as well as T and B lymphocytes, in the 70s.

In 1945-1955. A number of studies have been published showing that when the lymphoepithelial organ called the bursa of Fabricius is removed from birds, the ability to produce antibodies decreases. Thus, it turned out that there are two parts immune system- thymus-dependent, responsible for cellular immune reactions, and dependent on the bursa of Fabricius, affecting the synthesis of antibodies. J. Miller and the English researcher G. Claman in the 70s were the first to show that in immunological reactions the cells of these two systems enter into cooperative interaction with each other. The study of cellular cooperation is one of the central areas of modern immunology.

In 1948, A. Fagreus established that antibodies are synthesized by plasma cells, and J. Gowens, by transferring lymphocytes in 1959, proved the role of lymphocytes in the immune response.

In 1956, Jean Dosset and his colleagues discovered the HLA histocompatibility antigen system in humans, which made it possible to perform tissue typing.

Mac Devwit proved in 1965 that immunological reactivity genes (Ir genes), on which the ability to respond to foreign antigens depends, belong to the major histocompatibility complex. In 1974, P. Zinkernagel and R. Dougherty showed that the antigens of the major histocompatibility complex are the object of primary immunological recognition in the reactions of T lymphocytes to various antigens.

Important for understanding the mechanisms of regulation of the activity of immunocompetent cells and their interactions with auxiliary cells had the discovery in 1969 by D. Dumond of lymphokines produced by lymphocytes, and the creation in 1974 of the theory of the immunoregulatory network “idiotype-antiidiotype” by N. Erne.

New research methods were of great importance for the development of immunology, along with the fundamental data obtained. These include methods for culturing lymphocytes (P. Nowell), quantitative determination of antibody-forming cells (N. Erne, A. Nordin), colony-forming cells (Mc Culloch), methods for culturing lymphoid cells (T. Meikinodan), and detection of receptors on lymphocyte membranes. The possibilities of using immunological research methods and increasing their sensitivity have increased significantly due to the introduction of the radioimmunological method into practice. For the development of this method, the American researcher R. Yalow was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1978.

For the development of immunology, genetics and general biology The hypothesis put forward in 1965 by W. Dreyer and J. Bennett that the light chain of immunoglobulins is encoded not by one, but by two different genes, had an important impact. Before this, the generally accepted hypothesis was that of F. Jacob and J. Monod, according to which the synthesis of each protein molecule is encoded by a separate gene.

The next stage in the development of immunology was the study of subpopulations of lymphocytes and thymic hormones, which have both stimulating and inhibitory effects on the immune process.

Over the past two decades, there has been evidence of the existence in the bone marrow of stem cells capable of transforming into immunocompetent cells.

Advances in immunology over the past 20 years have confirmed Burnet's idea that immunity is a homeostatic phenomenon and, by its nature, is directed primarily against mutant cells and autoantigens appearing in the body, and antimicrobial action is a private manifestation of immunity. Thus, infectious immunology, which has been developing for a long time as one of the areas of microbiology, was the basis for the emergence of a new field scientific knowledge- non-infectious immunology.

The main task of modern immunology is to identify the biological mechanisms of immunogenesis at the cellular and molecular levels. The structure and functions of lymphoid cells, the properties and nature of the physicochemical processes occurring on their membranes, in the cytoplasm and organelles are studied. As a result of these studies, today immunology has come close to understanding the intimate mechanisms of recognition, synthesis of antibodies, their structure and functions. Significant progress has been made in the study of T-lymphocyte receptors, cellular cooperation and the mechanisms of cellular immune reactions.

The development of immunology has led to the identification of a number of independent areas in it: general immunology, immunotolerance, immunochemistry, immunomorphology, immunogenetics, tumor immunology, transplantation immunology, embryogenesis immunology, autoimmune processes, radioimmune immunology, allergies, immunobiotechnology, environmental immunology, etc.

The discovery of pathogens was accompanied by the study of their biological properties, the development of nomenclature and their classification. This stage in the development of microbiology can be called physiological. During this period, the processes and characteristics of metabolism in bacteria were studied: respiration, the need for organic and mineral substances, enzymatic activity, reproduction and growth, cultivation on artificial nutrient media, etc.

The discoveries of the brilliant French scientist Louis Pasteur (1822-1895) were of great importance for the development of microbiology during this period. He not only substantiated the etiological role of microbes in the occurrence of diseases, but also discovered the enzymatic nature of fermentation - anaerobiosis (i.e. breathing in the absence of oxygen), refuted the position of spontaneous generation of bacteria, substantiated the processes of disinfection and sterilization, and also discovered and substantiated by example rabies and other infections vaccination principles, i.e. protective vaccinations against microbes.

Immunological period

microbiology virology immunological medicine

The fourth, immunological period in the development of microbiology begins with L. Pasteur. The scientist, in brilliant experiments on animals, using chicken cholera, anthrax and rabies as a model, developed the principles of creating specific immunity to microbes by vaccinating with weakened and also killed microbes. He developed a method of attenuation, i.e. weakening (reduction) of the virulence of microbes through repeated passages through the body of animals, as well as by growing them on artificial nutrient media in unfavorable conditions. The introduction of strains with reduced virulence to animals subsequently provided protection against diseases caused by virulent microbes. The effectiveness of vaccination with attenuated strains of microbes was brilliantly confirmed by L. Pasteur when saving people infected with the rabies virus.

Before L. Pasteur, the possibility of protective vaccinations against smallpox of people was known by applying the contents of pustules (pox) taken from cows with cowpox to the skin. This was first accomplished by the English physician E. Jenner (1749-1823) more than 200 years ago. Humanity celebrates this event with gratitude. Thus, 1996, which marked the 200th anniversary of smallpox vaccination, was declared the year of Jenner throughout the world. However, vaccinations against human smallpox with material containing the causative agent of cowpox were purely empirical in nature and did not lead to the development of general scientific principles of vaccine prevention. This was done by L. Pasteur, who had great respect for E. Jenner and, in his honor, proposed calling the drugs used for vaccinations vaccines (from the French vaca - cow).

L. Pasteur developed not only the principle of vaccination, but also a method of preparing vaccines, which has not lost its relevance today. Consequently, L. Pasteur is the founder of not only microbiology and immunology, but also immunobiotechnology.?

Development of immunology at the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th centuries. associated with the names of two outstanding scientists - the Russian zoologist I.I. Mechnikov (1845--1916) and the German chemist P. Ehrlich (1854--1915). Both of these scientists, as well as Pasteur, are the founders of immunology. I.I. Mechnikov, who graduated from Kharkov University and became a professor at the age of 26, worked next to L. Pasteur for more than 28 years, being deputy for science at the Paris Pasteur Institute, headed by L. Pasteur himself. This institute was created in 1888 with donations from both ordinary people, and the governments of various countries. Made the most generous donation Russian Emperor Alexander III. The Pasteur Institute is still one of the leading institutions in the world today. It is no coincidence that it was at this institute in 1983 that L. Montagnier discovered the human immunodeficiency virus.

I.I. Mechnikov developed the phagocytic theory of immunity, i.e. laid the foundations of cellular immunology, for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize. At the same time, the same prize was awarded to P. Ehrlich for the development of the humoral theory of immunity, which explained the mechanisms of protection with the help of antibodies. The humoral theory of P. Ehrlich was confirmed by the works of E. Bering and S. Kitazato, who first prepared antitoxic diphtheria serums by immunizing horses with diphtheria toxin.

Along with the development of vaccines and serums, the search for chemical antibacterial drugs that have bacteriostatic and bactericidal effects developed. The founder of this direction was P. Ehrlich, who was looking for a “magic bullet” against microbes. He was the first to create the drug "Salvarsan" (drug 606), which has a detrimental effect on spirochetes - the causative agent of syphilis. This area of chemotherapy and chemoprophylaxis is intensively developing and currently has many achievements, the culmination of which is the creation of antibiotics discovered by the English doctor A. Fleming.

The immunological period of the development of microbiology laid a solid foundation for the establishment of immunology as an independent discipline, and also enriched microbiology with new immunological research methods, which made it possible to raise microbiology to a higher scientific and practical level. This was also facilitated by advances in the field of biochemistry, molecular biology, genetics, and subsequently genetic engineering and biotechnology. Since the 40-50s of the XX century. microbiology and immunology have entered the 5th molecular genetic stage of development. This stage is characterized by the flowering of molecular biology, which discovered the universality of genetic code humans, animals, plants and bacteria; molecular mechanisms biological processes. Were deciphered chemical structures vital biologically active substances, such as hormones, enzymes, etc.; implemented chemical synthesis biologically active substances. Individual genes were deciphered, cloned and synthesized, recombinant DNA was created; Genetic engineering methods for obtaining complex biologically active substances are being introduced into practice, etc.

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State Budgetary Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education "Bashkir State Medical University"

Ministry of Health of Russia

Department of Microbiology, Virology and Immunology

Head department, doctor of medical sciences

Professor Z.G. Gabidullin

In microbiology on the topic: “Stages of formation of immunology”

Completed by a 2nd year student

Faculty of Medicine gr. L-306A

Afanasyev V.A.

Introduction

Immunology arose as a part of microbiology as a result of its practical application for the treatment of infectious diseases, so infectious immunology developed at the first stage.

Immunology in ancient times

Since ancient times, people have known that patients who have had cowpox do not develop natural illness. For 25 years, the English doctor E. Jenner checked these data through numerous studies and came to the conclusion that infection with cowpox prevents the disease from smallpox. In 1796, Jenner inoculated material from the smallpox abscess of a woman infected with cowpox into an eight-year-old boy. A few days later, the boy developed a fever and ulcers appeared at the site of injection of the infectious material. Then these phenomena disappeared. After 6 weeks, he was injected with material from pustules from a smallpox patient, but the boy did not get sick. With this experiment, Jenner first established the possibility of preventing smallpox. The method became widespread in Europe, as a result of which the incidence of smallpox sharply decreased.

Major names in microbiology and immunology

Science-based methods for preventing infectious diseases were developed by the great French scientist Louis Pasteur. In 1880, Pasteur studied chicken cholera. In one of the experiments, to infect chickens, he used an old culture of the causative agent of chicken cholera, which was stored for a long time at a temperature of 37 ° C. Some of the infected chickens survived, and after re-infection with a fresh culture, the chickens did not die. Pasteur reported this experiment to the Paris Academy of Sciences and suggested that weakened microbes could be used to prevent infectious diseases. The weakened cultures were called vaccines (Vacca - cow), and the method of prevention was called vaccination. Subsequently, Pasteur obtained vaccines against anthrax and rabies. The principles of obtaining vaccines and methods of their use developed by this scientist have been successfully used for 100 years to prevent infectious diseases. However, how immunity is created was not known for a long time.

The second direction in the development of immunology was represented by the German scientist P. Ehrlich. He believed that the main protective mechanism against infection is the humoral factors of blood serum - antibodies. By the end of the 19th century, it became clear that these two points of view do not exclude, but complement each other. In 1908, I. I. Mechnikov and P. Ehrlich were awarded the Nobel Prize for the development of the doctrine of immunity.

The last two decades of the 19th century were marked by outstanding discoveries in the field of medical microbiology and immunology. Antitoxic antitetanus and antidiphtheria sera were obtained by immunizing rabbits with diphtheria and tetanus toxin. Thus, for the first time in medical practice, an effective remedy for the treatment and prevention of diphtheria and tetanus appeared. In 1902, Bering was awarded the Nobel Prize for this discovery.

The Belgian scientist J. Bordet showed that the bactericidal properties of serum are determined not only by complement, but also by specific antibodies.

Immunology as a fundamental science

In 1902, French scientists Richet and Portier discovered the phenomenon of anaphylaxis, on the basis of which the doctrine of allergies was subsequently created.

Subsequently, the molecular structure of antibodies was clarified, the sequence of amino acids in the light and heavy chains was established, immunoglobulins were divided into classes and subclasses, and important data on their physicochemical and biological properties were obtained. For research on the molecular structure of antibodies, R. Porter and the American scientist D. Edelman were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1972.

In 1945-1955. A number of studies have been published showing that when the lymphoepithelial organ called the bursa of Fabricius is removed from birds, the ability to produce antibodies decreases. Thus, it turned out that there are two parts of the immune system - the thymus-dependent one, which is responsible for cellular immune reactions, and the bursa-dependent one, which affects the synthesis of antibodies. J. Miller and the English researcher G. Claman in the 70s were the first to show that in immunological reactions the cells of these two systems enter into cooperative interaction with each other. The study of cellular cooperation is one of the central areas of modern immunology.

In 1948, A. Fagreus established that antibodies are synthesized by plasma cells, and J. Gowens, by transferring lymphocytes in 1959, proved the role of lymphocytes in the immune response.

In 1956, Jean Dosset and his colleagues discovered the HLA histocompatibility antigen system in humans, which made it possible to perform tissue typing.

Of great importance for understanding the mechanisms of regulation of the activity of immunocompetent cells and their interactions with auxiliary cells was the discovery in 1969 by D. Dumond of lymphokines produced by lymphocytes, and the creation by N. Erne in 1974 of the theory of the immunoregulatory network “idiotype-anti-idiotype”.

The development of immunology, genetics and general biology was greatly influenced by the hypothesis put forward in 1965 by W. Dreyer and J. Bennett that the light chain of immunoglobulins is encoded not by one, but by two different genes. Before this, the generally accepted hypothesis was that of F. Jacob and J. Monod, according to which the synthesis of each protein molecule is encoded by a separate gene.

Period of study of subpopulations of lymphocytes and thymic hormones

The next stage in the development of immunology was the study of subpopulations of lymphocytes and thymic hormones, which have both stimulating and inhibitory effects on the immune process.

Over the past two decades, there has been evidence of the existence in the bone marrow of stem cells capable of transforming into immunocompetent cells.

Modern immunology

Conclusion

immunology science hormone microbiology

List of used literature

1. Vorobyov A.A. "Microbiology". Textbook for medical students. Universities, 1994.

2. Korotyaev A.I. "Medical microbiology, virologists

3. Pokrovsky V.I. "Medical microbiology, immunology, virology." Textbook for pharmacy students. Universities, 2002.

4. Borisov L.B. "Medical microbiology, virology and immunology." Textbook for medical students. Universities, 1994.

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Anthroponotic bacterial infections of humans affecting the respiratory or genitourinary tract.

Mycoplasmas belong to the class Mollicutes, which includes 3 orders: Acholeplasmatales, Mycoplasmatales, Anaeroplasmatales.

Morphology: Absence of a rigid cell wall, cell polymorphism, plasticity, osmotic sensitivity, resistance to various agents that suppress cell wall synthesis, including penicillin and its derivatives. Gram “-”, better stained according to Romanovsky-Giemsa; distinguish between mobile and immobile species. Cell membrane is in a liquid crystalline state; includes proteins embedded in two lipid layers, the main component of which is cholesterol.

Cultural properties. Chemoorganotrophs, the main source of energy is glucose or arginine. They grow at a temperature of 30C. Most species are facultative anaerobes; extremely demanding on nutrient media and cultivation conditions. Nutrient media (beef heart extract, yeast extract, peptone, DNA, glucose, arginine).

Cultivate on liquid, semi-liquid and solid nutrient media.

Biochemical activity: Low. There are 2 groups of mycoplasmas: 1. decomposing glucose, maltose, mannose, fructose, starch and glycogen with the formation of acid; 2. oxidizing glutamate and lactate, but not fermenting carbohydrates. All species do not hydrolyze urea.

Antigenic structure: Complex, has species differences; the main antigens are represented by phospho- and glycolipids, polysaccharides and proteins; The most immunogenic are surface antigens, including carbohydrates as part of complex glycolipid, lipoglycan and glycoprotein complexes.

Pathogenicity factors: adhesins, toxins, aggression enzymes and metabolic products. Adhesins are part of surface Ags and determine adhesion to host cells. The presence of a neurotoxin is suspected in some strains of M. pneumoniae, since respiratory tract infections often accompany lesions nervous system. Endotoxins have been isolated from many pathogenic mycoplasmas. Hemolysins are found in some species. Among the aggression enzymes, the main pathogenicity factors are phospholipase A and aminopeptidases, which hydrolyze cell membrane phospholipids. Proteases that cause degranulation of cells, including fat cells, breakdown of AT molecules and essential amino acids.

Epidemiology: M. pneumoniae colonizes the mucous membrane of the respiratory tract; M. hominis, M. genitalium and U. urealyticum - “urogenital mycoplasmas” - live in the urogenital tract.

The source of infection is a sick person. The transmission mechanism is aerogenic, the main transmission route is airborne.

Pathogenesis: Penetrate the body, migrate through mucous membranes, attach to the epithelium through glycoprotein receptors. Microbes do not exhibit a pronounced cytopathogenic effect, but cause disturbances in the properties of cells with the development of local inflammatory reactions.

Clinic: Respiratory mycoplasmosis - in the form of upper respiratory tract infection, bronchitis, pneumonia. Extra-respiratory manifestations: hemolytic anemia, neurological disorders, cardiovascular complications.

Immunity: respiratory and urogenital mycoplasmosis are characterized by cases of re-infection.

Microbiological diagnostics: nasopharyngeal swabs, sputum, bronchial washings. For urogenital infections, urine, scrapings from the urethra, and vagina are examined.

For laboratory diagnosis of mycoplasma infections, cultural, serological and molecular genetic methods are used.

In serodiagnosis, the material for research is tissue smears, scrapings from the urethra, vagina, in which antigens of mycoplasmas can be detected in direct and indirect RIF. Mycoplasmas and ureaplasmas are detected in the form of green granules.

Mycoplasma antigens can also be detected in the blood serum of patients. For this purpose, ELISA is used.

For serodiagnosis of respiratory mycoplasmosis, specific ATs are determined in paired patient sera. In some cases, serodiagnosis is carried out for urogenital mycoplasmosis; AT is most often determined by RPGA and ELISA.

Treatment. Antibiotics. Causal chemotherapy.

Prevention. Nonspecific

Basic historical stages development of immunology and allergology. Modern branches of immunology and their significance for medicine.

Immunology studies the mechanisms and methods of protecting the body from genetically foreign substances - antigens in order to maintain and preserve homeostasis, the structural and functional integrity of each organism and species as a whole. Chronologically, immunology as a science has gone through 2 large periods: trans. protoimmunology (from ancient times to the 80s of the 19th century), associated with spontaneous, empirical knowledge of defense. district org-ma, and lane. the origins of experimental and theoretical immunology (from the 80s of the 19th century to the second decade of the 20th century). During the second lane. the formation of the classical immunology, cat. was mainly infectious in nature. immune We can also distinguish the 3rd period (from the mid-20th century to the present day). During this period, the molek developed. and cellular immunology, immunogenetics. Stages of development of microbiology: 1) Empirical period. knowledge; 2) Morphological period; 3) Physiological period; 4) Immunologist.trans.; 5)Molecular-genetic. period. Immunological lane (1st half of the 20th century) is the beginning of the development of immunology. It is associated with the names of the French. scientist L. Pasteur (discovered and developed the principles of vaccination), Russian biologist I.I. Mechnikov (discovered the phagocytic theory, which was the basis of cellular immunology) and the German doctor P. Ehrlich (proposed a hypothesis about AT and developed the humoral theory of immunity). It should be noted that even in the empirical period one discovery was made: Edward Jenner found a way to create immunity to exciters. smallpox of a person, by inoculating a person with the cowpox virus, i.e. contents of pustules of a person suffering from cowpox. But only at the end of the 20th century did Pasteur scientifically substantiate the principles of vaccination and the method of obtaining vaccinations. He showed that the causative agent of fowl cholera, rabies, and anthrax, weakened in one way or another, having lost its virulent pathogenic properties, remains intact. the ability, when introduced into the body, to create a specific. immunity to the pathogen. Pasteur was the first to obtain from the brains of rabid dogs and rabbits, subjected to temperature effects, live attenuated rabies vaccine using a fixed rabies virus; checked the prevention. and medical effects of vaccination on patients bitten by rabid animals; created vaccination points. Mechnikov substantiated the doctrine of phagocytosis and phagocytes and proved that phagocytosis is observed in all animals, including protozoa, and manifests itself in relation to all foreign substances. This was the beginning cell theory immunity and the process of immunogenesis as a whole, taking into account the class. and humoral factors. In 1900 R. Koch discovered such a form of immune system response as HRT, and in 1905. S.Richet and Sakharov described GNT. Both of these forms of response formed the basis of the doctrine of allergies. In 1950 was open tolerance to hypertension and immunological memory. But the phenomenon, connection. with immunological memory (the rapid effect of AT formation upon repeated administration of AG), was first discovered by Ros. doctor Raisky 1915 Numerous studies have been devoted to studying. lymphocytes, their role in immunity, the relationship between T- and B-lymphocytes and phagocytes, the killer function of lymphocytes. At the same time, immunoglobulins were studied (Porter), interferon (Isaac) and interleukins were discovered. Immunology in the mid-20th century. took shape as a self. science.

There are general and specific immunology. General ones include: molecular, cellular, physiology of immunity, immunochemistry, immunogenetics, evolutionary immunology. Particularly relevant: immunoprophylaxis, allergology, immuno-oncology, transplantation named after., named after. reproduction, immunopathology, immunobiotechnologist, immunopharmacologist, environmental im., clinical im. Each section of private immune. plays a certain important role in medicine. Immun. literally permeates the entire profile. and clinical disciplines. and decides to expel. important medical problems, such as reducing the frequency and eliminating infectious diseases, diagnosis and treatment of allergies, oncologist. disease, immunopathologist. condition, organ transplantation, etc. etc.