Slide 2
Plan
1. Population of China
2. Household
3. Uprisings
4. Features of Development
5. Religion of China
Slide 3
Population of China
China's population is 300 million, having tripled in a hundred years. At this time, a third of the world's population lived in China.
Slide 4
Farm
In China, millet, wheat, millet, beans, and hemp were grown. There they began to grow tea for the first time, and grow mulberry and lacquer trees. They began to use the plow for cultivation: there was a transition from hoe farming to arable farming, which was more productive.
Slide 5
Uprisings
In 1622, peasant uprisings began in Shandong under the leadership of the White Lotus secret society. Government troops were unable to cope with them. And the authorities made some concessions, hoping to gain time. In an effort to regain the initiative, in 1636 they announced an amnesty for the participants in the uprising if they voluntarily stopped the armed struggle. The leaders of the rebels were promised complete forgiveness and enrollment in imperial army, for officer positions. A special imperial edict announced a reduction in taxes on the population.
Slide 6
Uprisings(part II)
The actions carried out soon led to the first positive results for the government. Many peasants returned home and began peaceful work. It seemed that peasant war ended completely. However, this turned out to be an illusion. Already in 1639, peasant uprisings again engulfed many regions of China, and some representatives of the ruling classes, dissatisfied with the Ming, even began to join them. The uprising was led by Zhang Xianzhong and Li Zichen. They managed to create a fairly strong and efficient army
At the beginning of 1644, Li Zicheng decided to march on Beijing. His troops moved out of Xi'an in two columns, enjoying the support of wide sections of the population. In April of the same year, without encountering virtually any resistance, the rebels entered the capital. Emperor Chun Zhen, unable to withstand such shame, committed suicide by hanging himself in a gazebo in a park near his residence, having previously personally taken the lives of his daughter and several concubines. Together with him, about 80 thousand people committed suicide as a sign of devotion. Li Zicheng was proclaimed the new emperor, and his inner circle received the highest positions in the state
Slide 7
Slide 8
Features of development
Chinese folk craftsmen created a wide variety of applied art products. Master carvers, despite the difficulties of working with hard rocks, carve from jade, rose quartz, rock crystal, ivory various accessories.
Decorative and applied arts occupied a special place in the culture of China during the Qing period. Chinese ceramists are achieving new successes in the production of artistic porcelain, which is decorated with painting with shiny transparent enamel paints. During the Qing period, quite prominent masters appeared in classical prose and poetry. In the field of narrative literature, the short story genre stands out
Slide 9
Religion in China
1. Confucianism
2. Buddhism
Slide 10
Confucianism
Confucianism took shape during a period of rapid social change (the replacement of slavery by feudalism, the formation centralized state). Confucius saw the main task of his teaching in preserving the best traditions ancient culture, which, firstly, are able to protect society from any shocks and changes and, secondly, orient people towards achieving a certain social ideal. Such an ideal in Confucianism is the “perfect husband”, possessing five virtues. The main condition for achieving and following these virtues is education. According to Confucius, the order of things in the state is determined by the heavenly law of Tao, and every person must follow this law; Only in this case is harmony in society possible. Thus, the system of ordered society created by Confucius was ultimately sanctified by the will of Heaven.
- Worker and peasant movement in 1924 - early 1925 IV Congress of the CPC - page 2
- Completion of the unification of Guangdong. Strengthening the struggle within the united front
- The second stage of the Northern Expedition. Uprisings of the Shanghai proletariat
- Counter-offensive of the imperialists and Chinese reaction. Coups in East and South China
- Continuation of the Northern Expedition. Workers' and peasants' movement in the Wuhan region
- Defeat of the revolution of 1925-1927. and its significance in Chinese history
- Beginning of the Soviet movement (1927-1931)
- Development of a new line of the CCP with the help of the Comintern. 6th CPC Congress
- Domestic and foreign policy of the Nanjing government in 1928-1931.
- Revolutionary movement in China in 1928-1931.
- Capture of Northeast China by Japanese imperialism
- Political and economic situation in China in 1931-1935. Nanjing government policy
- Political and economic situation in China in 1931-1935. Nanjing Government Policy - Page 2
- Liberation and revolutionary struggle of the Chinese people
- Liberation and revolutionary struggle of the Chinese people - page 2
- The struggle of the Red Army against the fourth campaign of the Kuomintang. Improving fighting tactics
- Fifth campaign of the Kuomintang. Abandonment of the territory of the Central Soviet region by units of the 1st Front
- Increased Japanese aggression in Northern China. The rise of the Chinese people's national liberation struggle
- VII Congress of the Comintern and the turn in the politics of the CPC
- VII Congress of the Comintern and the turn in the politics of the CPC - page 2
- Advance of Japanese troops. Deployment of armed resistance of the Chinese people (July 1937 - October 1938)
- Resistance forces behind Japanese lines and the creation of Liberated Areas
- International situation and foreign policy of China at the beginning of the Anti-Japanese War
- Strategic calm in the Chinese theater of operations. The disintegration of the Kuomintang regime and the growth of the revolutionary forces of the Chinese people (November 1938 - February 1944)
- Strengthening reactionary tendencies in the Kuomintang. Worsening relations between the CCP and the Kuomintang
- The final stage of the Anti-Japanese War (March 1944 - September 1945)
- The final stage of the anti-Japanese war (March 1944 - September 1945) - page 2
- Entry of the Soviet Union into the war against imperialist Japan. Completion of the Chinese people's liberation war
- Negotiations between the CPC and the Kuomintang (August 1945 - June 1946)
- The maturation of a pan-Chinese civil war. Decision of the CPC Central Committee of May 4, 1946
- Civil war on a nationwide scale. Kuomintang offensive (July 1946 - June 1947)
- Political and economic crisis of the Kuomintang regime
- The offensive of the People's Liberation Army. Victory of the People's Revolution in China (July 1947 - September 1949)
- CCP policy in cities. Attitude towards the working class. The formation of a united people's democratic front
- Decisive battles at the end of 1948 - beginning of 1949. Peace negotiations. Crossing of the Yangtze
- Victory of the people's revolution. Proclamation of the People's Republic of China
- Recovery period. Completion of bourgeois-democratic transformations of 1949-1952.
- Recovery period. Completion of bourgeois-democratic transformations of 1949-1952. - page 2
- The first five-year plan. Beginning of socialist industrialization (1953-1957)
- Assistance of the Soviet Union in the socialist construction of the PRC
- “The Case of Gao Gang - Zhao Shu-shi” and the “campaign against counter-revolution”
- Cooperation of the peasantry. Nationalization of private industry and trade. Mao Zedong's attempt to revise the general line of the CCP
- Cooperation of the peasantry. Nationalization of private industry and trade. Mao Zedong's attempt to revise the general line of the CCP - page 2
- “Movement to correct the style in the party” and “struggle against bourgeois right-wing elements”
- Meeting in Beidaihe. "The Great Leap Forward". "Communization" of the village
- Meeting in Beidaihe. "The Great Leap Forward". "Communization" of the village - page 2
- The period of “settlement” (1961-1965). The actual abandonment of the “leap” policy. 9th Plenum of the CPC Central Committee
- Struggle within the CCP regarding China's development path
- Struggle within the CCP regarding China's development path - page 2
- The schismatic activities of the Mao Zedong group in the socialist community and the world communist movement
- Extensive attack on the CCP during the Cultural Revolution (1965-1969)
- Extensive attack on the CCP during the Cultural Revolution (1965-1969) - page 2
- The course is to “seize power” and “unite the three sides.” Creation of "revolutionary committees". Role of the Army
- Strengthening the anti-Soviet activities of Mao Zedong's group during the Cultural Revolution
China by the beginning of modern times
By the time the Great October Socialist Revolution took place in Russia, China remained a semi-colony of imperialism, socially, economically, culturally and militarily backward. The overwhelming majority of the population was employed in agriculture, where, despite the beginning of the development of capitalism, feudal production relations dominated.
Landowners, who made up 4% of farms, owned approximately half of the cultivated land (including “public lands” - family lands, temples, schools, managed by the same landowners).
An influential part of the class of landowners were the Shenshi - a unique class that developed in feudal China. They owned land, had “academic titles” obtained through special exams that survived until 1905, and served as officials. They were joined by tuhao - local bosses, half landowners, half kulaks, who were also involved in usury. Shenshi and Tuhao made up the village elite.
Together with the kulaks (6% of farms), the landowners had 68% of the land area, while the poor had only 17% of the land (the poor and farm laborers made up 70% of the farms), and the middle peasants (20% of the farms) had 15% of the land. Using their virtual monopoly on land, landowners and kulaks brutally exploited landless and land-poor peasants, renting out land to them on enslaving terms.
Tenants gave more than 50% of the harvest to the landowners and performed various duties. The peasants were subjected to usurious exploitation by the same landowner, kulak, merchant or “professional” moneylender, and bore the burden of numerous taxes and levies. Often a landowner, merchant, moneylender and government official were combined into one person or one family, which held hundreds of peasants in bondage.
Peasants went bankrupt, lost their land, sold children into slavery as servants and workers, turned into beggars, became bandits, or were hired as soldiers in militaristic troops. The ruin of the peasants led, as a rule, to “non-proletarian impoverishment,” since only a small part of the poor who came to the cities could find work, even under the most inhuman conditions.
Due to the dominance of feudal relations agriculture China technically remained at a medieval level; natural disasters systematically caused enormous damage to crops. At the same time, the Chinese economy was part of the world capitalist economy, and the position of the Chinese peasant was influenced by price fluctuations on the world market and economic crises.
Silk, tobacco, and soybeans were exported from China; By the end of the First World War, tea exports had greatly decreased due to competition between English and Dutch colonial firms. At the same time, China was forced to import food.
The peasantry was characterized by the predominance of natural and semi-natural forms of economy, relatively weak social differentiation, the strong influence of clan relations and patriarchal ideas, illiteracy, and the spread of superstitions.
Feudal relations in the countryside hampered the development of China and were one of the reasons for the country's political fragmentation and dependence on foreign imperialists. At the same time, a capitalist system was developing in China, albeit very slowly. Foreign and Chinese capitalists opened modern enterprises, mainly in the light and food industries.
Factory production was concentrated mainly in several large ports: Shanghai, Tianjin, Qingdao, Hankou, Guangzhou. There was almost no heavy industry (except for mining). The development of national industry was hampered by the competition of foreign goods, the arbitrariness of ministers and officials, the poverty of the vast majority of the population, and, consequently, the narrowness of the domestic market.
During the First World War, when the attention and forces of the Western powers were absorbed in the struggle for dominance in the world, which unfolded mainly on the European continent, Chinese capitalism grew faster than in pre-war period. From 1913 to 1920, the number of enterprises increased by 2.5 times, the number of workers in Chinese enterprises doubled, and the capital of the national bourgeoisie increased by 1.5 times. But the Chinese bourgeoisie, despite its growth during the war, remained an economically weak class, striving for Chinese independence, but politically indecisive, prone to compromise with imperialism and feudal forces.
The young Chinese working class was small in number. At the end of the First World War, approximately 0.5% of the population was employed in capitalist industry. Women and children, unskilled and seasonal workers made up the majority, and the hereditary industrial proletariat was almost completely absent. The workers depended on contractors - foremen, who usually hired them on contract or apprenticeship terms, acted as intermediaries between them and the entrepreneurs, and took part of their meager wages.
In China, there was no social and labor legislation, workers had no rights, worked 11-14 hours, and received a day off only once every two to four weeks. Severe agrarian overpopulation and complete lack of rights for workers were used by the capitalists for exploitation. The working class, subjected to triple oppression (foreign capital, “its own” bourgeoisie, feudal-militarist reaction), was potentially the most serious revolutionary force.
Big specific gravity in the cities were occupied by the petty-bourgeois strata (handicraftsmen, artisans, small traders, petty-bourgeois intelligentsia), as well as the lumpen proletariat. These strata, especially representatives of the intelligentsia and students, were often the instigators of protests against foreign oppression, the overthrow of which remained main task Chinese revolution.
China was entangled in unequal treaties that provided the imperialist powers with ample opportunities for the political, economic, military and ideological enslavement of this huge country. China's semi-colonial position was manifested primarily in the dominance of foreign capital in the economy.
Thus, in the early 20s, the imperialists fully or partially controlled half of coal production, including a third of mechanized mining, all of iron ore, all mechanized iron production, they owned half of the looms, they controlled most of the railroads.
Under the unequal treaties, China could not impose import duties on foreign goods above 5% of the value of the goods. Most often they were even lower. Thus, in 1918, import duties on fabrics and raw cotton amounted to 2-3% of their value, on sugar - 3, on tin - 3-4%. In 1921, on average they reached 3.1% of the value of goods. At the same time, there were numerous internal duties for Chinese goods, collected at the borders of not only provinces, but often also counties - lijin.
The imperialist powers divided China into "spheres of influence". In the cities, the imperialists controlled vast areas (“the embassy quarter” in Beijing, the “international settlement” in Shanghai, foreign “concessions” in Tianjin, Hankou, Guangzhou and many other sea and river ports, as well as industrial and cultural centers). Foreigners enjoyed the rights of “extraterritoriality”; they were not subject to Chinese jurisdiction. The imperialist states kept their troops, navy, police, and intelligence agencies in China.
The domination of the imperialists and the predominance of semi-feudal relations in economic system gave rise to political fragmentation in China. Nominally, a central government functioned in Beijing, but it had no real power in the country, but depended on foreign envoys and major militarists who controlled provinces or groups of provinces.
Militarist cliques enjoyed military, political, financial and economic support from the imperialist powers and defended their “interests,” as well as the class privileges of landowners, compradors, and the top of the national commercial and industrial bourgeoisie. Militarism could develop in China under conditions of agrarian overpopulation, when the ruin of the peasants supplied hundreds of thousands of mercenary soldiers to the militaristic armies, and weapons and money came from the imperialists, who considered this or that Chinese general as their landsknecht.
The characteristics of Chinese militarism are given in the resolution of the VII Plenum of the Executive Committee of the Comintern (1926): “Chinese militarism is a socio-political force that currently dominates most of the territory of China. Existence in China government organization Chinese militarism is determined by the semi-colonial position of China, the dismemberment of Chinese territory, the backwardness of the Chinese economy and the presence of a huge agrarian overpopulation in the Chinese countryside.”
The militarists robbed peasants, artisans, and traders, savagely suppressed workers' attempts to fight to improve their situation, and dealt with patriotic protests against the imperialists. Almost continuous militaristic wars doomed working people to poverty and placed a heavy burden on the entire people.
The dominance of pro-imperialist military-feudal cliques was incompatible with independence, democracy, unity and the very existence of China as a state. Therefore, along with the tasks of overthrowing the oppression of the imperialists and eliminating feudal and semi-feudal relations, history set before the Chinese people the task of destroying the militaristic cliques and unifying China on a democratic basis.
The revolution of 1911 overthrew the monarchy, but the republican system was a fiction, and the “parliament”, which was completely dependent on the militarists, had no influence on the political life of the country. The revolution did not lead to the destruction of the remnants of the Middle Ages in the socio-economic system of China, nor did it put an end to the semi-colonial situation of the country. On the contrary, China's dependence on imperialism increased, and the emergence of militarism aggravated the suffering of the masses.
In the south of China, in Guangzhou, the leader of the revolutionary democratic forces, Sun Yat-sen, managed to create a government with a program to continue the struggle begun by the revolution of 1911, but his position was extremely unstable, since the support of this government was the troops of some southern Chinese militarists.
Central and local authorities. During the reign of the Qing dynasty, the head of the state was the Bogdykhan Emperor. He possessed full civil and military power. The person of Bogdykhan was considered sacred, his will was not limited by anything. The Chinese emperor concentrated the supreme legislative, judicial and administrative power in his hands. The Emperor, as the “Son of Heaven,” ruled at the behest of the gods and was inaccessible to his subjects.
The emperor exercised his power with the help of the central apparatus, which consisted of the State Council, the State Chancellery and ministries (councils). The State Council and the Chancellery discussed bills and took part in determining the policies of the Chinese state. Administrative power was exercised through six councils - ministries: the Council of Civil Appointments, which was in charge of personnel appointments of civil services; Revenue Council, which dealt with financial and tax issues; The Council of Rites, responsible for maintaining court protocol; The War Council, which was in charge of the armed forces; The Council of Punishments, which was responsible for the work of courts and prisons; Council of Works, which organized and implemented government construction projects. Within the framework of the military-bureaucratic monarchy established in China with the advent of the Qing dynasty, the key governing body was the Military Council.
The activities of the Qing government were built on a system of dual appointments: two people were appointed simultaneously to one government post - a Manchu and a Han ( ethnic Chinese). The second one was doing practical work, the first controlled the Han and ensured his loyalty to the regime.
In the second half of the 19th century. A number of reforms are being carried out in the Chinese government apparatus. Thus, within the structure of state bodies, the Main Office for foreign affairs, whose task was to manage foreign relations, manage imperial customs, etc.; Han Chinese were given more opportunities to hold civilian and military positions.
In 1898, the decree “On State Plans” was adopted, which defined a program of reforms called the “Hundred Days of Reforms”, which was developed in 60 imperial decrees. The program involved modernization public administration according to the Western model, abolition of outdated administrative bodies, reduction of the bureaucracy and army, stimulation of economic development. However, the reorganization of state power undertaken “from above”, with the aim of establishing a constitutional monarchy, failed, which led China to revolutionary transformations.
As a result of the Xinhai Revolution, a provisional government was formed. In 1912, the Provisional Constitution of the Republic of China was published, which proclaimed China a democratic republic with a unitary structure and separation of powers. The highest legislative power was vested in the parliament, which consisted of two chambers: the upper house - the Senate and the lower house - the House of Representatives. In addition to legislative power, parliament had the right to approve the budget for New Year, and could also pass a vote of no confidence in the government. In 1913, Parliament created a constitutional commission to prepare a permanent constitution.
Suffrage in China was not universal and direct. Only citizens over 21 years of age who had lived in a given electoral district for at least two years could participate in the elections. In addition, each voter had to pay a direct tax or possess certain property. Voters first chose electors, and the latter elected deputies. In December 1912 - February 1913, parliamentary elections were held in China.
The head of state and the bearer of the highest executive power was the President of the Republic of China, who was elected for a term of five years. He appointed and dismissed civil and military officials, was the commander-in-chief of the army and navy, represented the republic in relations with foreign states, issued decrees, could declare war, and establish martial law in the country with the approval of parliament. In 1914, the rights of the president were expanded and the rights of parliament were limited. According to these changes, the president was endowed with virtually dictatorial powers. In addition, it was envisaged to increase the presidential term to ten years.
Under the 1912 constitution, the cabinet of ministers assisted the president in governing the country, but all ministers were responsible to the House of Representatives of parliament.
By the beginning of the 20s. XX century China did not represent a single political whole. The power of the central government of China (Nanjing - Beijing) extended only to the northern and central provinces. The southern provinces were subordinate to the Cantonese government and recognized the provisional constitution of 1912 as valid.
In 1923, the central government adopted the permanent Constitution of the Republic of China, which established the principle of separation of powers. Legislative power in the Republic of China belonged to the parliament, which consisted of two chambers: the Senate and the House of Representatives. Members of both houses could not hold civil or military official positions. The Senate was elected for six years and was renewed every two years by 1/3 of its composition, and the term of office of the House of Representatives was three years.
The highest executive power in the Republic of China belonged to the president. Any citizen of the Republic of China at the age of 40, who had lived in the country for at least ten years and enjoyed full civil rights, could be elected president. The president was elected by an election commission specially formed from among members of parliament. This commission, with the participation of at least 2/3 of its members, conducted a roll-call vote. The one who received more than 3/4 of the votes was considered elected. The president's term of office was five years. If he ran for office again, he could be re-elected for another term. If the post of president was vacant, his successor was the vice president, who served as president until the end of his term. And if the post of vice president was vacant at the same time, his duties were performed by State Council. In this case, a session of parliament was convened within no more than three months, which formed an election commission to conduct presidential elections. The election of the vice president was carried out in the same manner as the election of the president, and took place simultaneously with the election of the latter.
The State Council (cabinet of ministers) consisted of prime minister and ministers heading various ministries and departments. According to the constitution, the Prime Minister of the Council of State could only be appointed with the consent of the House of Representatives. All ministers were obliged to assist the president, but were responsible to the House of Representatives. All decrees issued by the President and others government documents must be signed by the relevant minister, without which they were not valid. Ministers had the right to attend and speak at meetings of both houses of parliament.
Judicial power belonged to the Supreme Court, whose members were appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Elected judicial chambers functioned locally.
In Kuomintang China, the 1923 constitution was abolished. Supreme body State power during this period became the highest party body - the National Congress of the Kuomintang, and in the period between its convocations - the Central Executive Committee of the Kuomintang. The national government was placed under the control of the Kuomintang Political Bureau. The leader of the ruling party was also the chairman of the government. This power structure was legally enshrined in the temporary constitution of the period of political trusteeship (1931).
In 1946 political system Kuomintang China was formalized constitutionally. In the new constitution, the main institutions of the period of political guardianship received legal recognition. The constitution introduced the institution of the presidency, which was absent at that time. Under the Provisional Rules for the National Mobilization to Suppress the 1948 Rebellion, certain provisions of the constitution were abrogated and the elected president was given emergency dictatorial powers.
The highest authorities in China Soviet Republic since 1931 there has been a Congress of Soviets, elected by it the Central Executive Committee and the Council people's commissars who had the right to make laws. At the same time, judicial institutions were formed in the form of the Supreme Court and local people's courts. The law on elections to councils gave active and passive suffrage only to working people. All exploitative and counter-revolutionary elements were deprived of political rights. Elections of deputies were carried out by open voting at special election meetings on a production-territorial principle: by workers at enterprises, and by peasants and other workers at their place of residence.
During the founding of the People's Republic of China, the main bodies new government There were military control committees (MCC) of the People's Liberation Army of China, which were appointed by front-line military-political bodies. All other power structures (people's political councils, conferences of people's representatives, administrative committees, etc.) were subordinated to military control committees. In the spring and summer of 1949, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Council (CPPCC) was organized.
In accordance with the CPPCC Program of 1949, the Assembly of People's Representatives, formed through general elections, became the authorized bodies of state power. The Central People's Government Council (CPGC) was also formed, which had the powers of the highest body of state power until September 1954 (legislation, ratification of international treaties, approval of the budget and reporting on its execution, appointment of senior government officials, resolution of issues of war and peace, etc. .d.). The Central People's Government Council, in turn, formed the State Administrative Council - the government of the republic, the People's Revolutionary Military Council, the Supreme Court and the Supreme People's Prosecutor's Office.
The main principle of the organization of the state apparatus was declared to be democratic centralism, indicating the accountability of government bodies to representative bodies and the subordination of the minority to the majority. Particular emphasis was placed on the need to combat the bureaucratic style of work, isolation from the masses, strictly punish bribery and prohibit wastefulness. A system of people's control bodies was established to monitor the implementation of laws and official duties. government agencies and employees with the right to hold them accountable in case of violation of the law and official duty.
Characteristic feature judicial system in 1949-1954 there was an abundance various types emergency courts. In addition to the military tribunals of the All-Russian CC, from 1950 people's tribunals began to be created, which were formally considered chambers (colleges) of county and city people's courts, but in fact were special emergency courts. Their competence included all cases of counter-revolutionary crimes and banditry. The leading officials and half of the members of the tribunals were elected by county or city people's governments, the other half were elected by people's conferences or delegated by people's organizations or elected at meetings of peasants or members of peasant unions. The verdicts of the people's tribunals were subject to approval by the people's governments of cities and counties or higher government bodies.
In March 1952, the Administrative Council established people's tribunals for the duration of the mass campaign "San Fan" ("against the three evils" - corruption, waste and bureaucracy). These tribunals were created in all institutions from district administrations and above, in military units and formations from regiments and above. They could impose any punishment, including the death penalty, with subsequent approval by higher government or military authorities. The chairmen of the tribunals were heads of institutions and military commanders. People's tribunals in cities were created by city people's governments and during their holding in 1952-1953. mass campaign “wu fan” (“against the five evils” - bribery of government officials, theft, tax evasion, fraud with government contracts, theft of secret state economic information). As a rule, the chairmen of the city people's courts were appointed as chairmen of the tribunals. The sentences of these tribunals, if they included the death penalty or long-term imprisonment (ten years or more), were subject to approval by higher government bodies.
In March 1951, the Central People's Procuratorate adopted the Temporary Organizational Regulations of the People's Courts of the People's Republic of China, the Temporary Organizational Regulations of the Supreme People's Procuratorate of the Central People's Government and General principles organization of local people's procuratorates.
The temporary organizational position of the people's courts of the PRC was based on the practice of including people's courts in the structure of local governments. Local people's procuratorates were also included in local governments and were thus, like the courts, under double subordination - to their superior bodies and to local people's governments.
In accordance with the 1954 constitution, the People's Republic of China was defined as a state of people's democracy, in which power belongs to the people through the National People's Congress (NPC) and local people's congresses. Considerable independence was given to its permanent body, the Standing Committee (SC) of the NPC. The constitution also introduced the post of Chairman of the People's Republic of China into the system of supreme bodies of state power. Gradually, legislative functions were concentrated in the Standing Committee of the NPC, the leadership of which coincided with the leadership of the Communist Party of China.
Seat of the Administrative Council in new system State bodies were occupied by the State Council, which differed significantly in its constitutional status from its predecessor in terms of the scope of powers and organization. The Council began to be in charge of the development of the armed forces, incorporating the Ministry of Defense into its system.
The constitutional system of the judiciary was based on the principles of administering justice only by the courts, participating in trial people's assessors, the independence of judges and ensuring the accused's right to defense; organization and activities of the prosecutor's office - on the principles of centralism and independence from local authorities. It was established that chairmen of courts at all levels were elected by councils of people's representatives, and judges were appointed by people's committees. Accountability and responsibility of courts to representative bodies was introduced. Party control was established over the activities of the judiciary and the prosecutor's office. However, in practice, party committees replaced judicial committees and boards of prosecutors. Territorial party committees not only intervened in the consideration of specific cases by the courts, but the secretaries of the party committees assumed the functions of judges.
According to the Constitution of the People's Republic of China of 1975, the National People's Congress was the highest body of state power, under the leadership of the Communist Party of China. The powers of the NPC were significantly narrowed. In particular, his rights to form the highest bodies of the state were limited by the constitution only to the dismissal of the prime minister of the State Council and other persons included in this body. Provisions on the rights and guarantees of the rights of deputies were excluded from the constitution. The Constitution also significantly reduced the powers of the NPC Standing Committee.
The Constitution abolished the post of Chairman of the People's Republic of China and a number of other government bodies. The highest body of executive power remained the State Council, which consisted of the prime minister, deputy prime ministers, ministers and committee chairmen.
In order to create an effective administrative apparatus, the new Constitution of the PRC of 1978 returned to a more clear definition of the status of state bodies, for which many provisions of the first Constitution of the PRC were used. Thus, the powers of the NPC were restored, and the list of powers of the Standing Committee of the NPC was close to the text of the first constitution. The list of powers of the State Council was somewhat reduced by eliminating references to specific branches of administrative leadership.
The Constitution of 1982 introduced significant changes to the state structure of the PRC, expressed in the restoration of the institution of the Chairman of the PRC; granting the Standing Committee of the NPC virtually the same rights in the field of legislation as the meeting itself; creation of the Central Military Council of the People's Republic of China; determining the terms limiting the tenure of certain senior government officials in their posts; establishing the principle of incompatibility between membership in standing committees of people's congresses and holding administrative, judicial and prosecutorial positions; the establishment within the government of various levels of the system of audit bodies to strengthen control over financial activities.
The 1982 constitution democratizes the institution of suffrage, the principles of which are universal, equal active and passive suffrage, mandatory representation of all national minorities in government bodies at various levels, election of all representative bodies of power in a democratic way, their responsibility to the people and controllability of the people, the subordination of deputies to the bodies that elected them, the right to recall and replace deputies by the bodies that elected them.
According to this constitution, all citizens of the People's Republic of China who have reached the age of 18 have the right to vote and be elected. In this case, no restrictions related to nationality, race, gender, occupation, social origin, religion, education, property status or residence are allowed. The exception is for persons deprived of political rights.
The court and prosecutor's offices play an important role in ensuring the functioning of the state apparatus. According to the constitution, the Supreme People's Court is the highest judicial body, responsible directly to the NPC and its PC. Of no small importance is the restoration of the institution of the prosecutor's office as a law enforcement agency of the state, called upon to ensure strict compliance with the laws.
The general rules for organizing the judicial system of the PRC were determined by the Law on the Organization of People's Courts of 1979. Courts are divided into people's and special courts. Local people's courts are divided into three levels: basic, middle and high. Most civil, criminal and administrative cases are tried in the first instance by the basic people's courts.
The development of the local government system in Modern China went through several stages.
Local government in China during the Qing Dynasty was determined by the presence of centralized power and represented a unitary form of government. The territory of the country was divided into provinces, and the latter, in turn, were divided into regions, districts and districts. Each province was headed by two governors, military and civilian, subordinate to the governor. Regions, districts and districts were governed by chiefs with the help of officials and elders. In the middle of the 19th century. The system of two governors in the provinces was abolished, and local power was concentrated in the hands of governors.
The Constitution of 1923 secured unitary state unity. The territorial administrative units of China were provinces and counties. The provincial and district representative assemblies and their executive councils were directly elected by the people for four years.
During the founding of the People's Republic of China General program In 1949, the CPPCC proclaimed a policy of local regional national autonomy, and the principle of self-determination of the peoples inhabiting China was not mentioned. The program proclaimed local people's governments and local people's congresses as local government bodies. In addition, military administrative committees and military control committees functioned locally.
The Constitution of 1954 introduced significant changes to the organization of local authorities and administration: all deputies of the councils of people's representatives began to be elected directly by the population or lower-level People's Congresses. Changed legal status regions of national autonomy. They were divided into stages: autonomous regions (districts), autonomous okrugs and autonomous counties. In addition, the creation of national volosts as non-autonomous administrative-territorial units was envisaged. The principle of national self-determination was not included in the constitution; it limited the decision national question administrative autonomy.
The 1975 constitution included revolutionary committees that were formed during the cultural revolution into the system of local government bodies. Formally, they were local authorities along with the people's congresses (PRAs), the latter's permanent bodies and local people's governments. However, the People's Congresses were not actually convened, and the revolutionary committees acquired the significance of the political basis of the state. The Constitution also established rural people's communes as local government bodies.
Provisions on ways to resolve the national question in China were excluded from the constitution. Previous guidelines prohibiting discrimination and oppression on the basis of nationality were also not included. Autonomous rights national regions this document also did not define, but their self-government bodies were established in the forms defined for ordinary administrative-territorial units.
The Constitution of 1978 restored some of the formulations of the first Constitution of the PRC regarding the position of national minorities and national autonomies. This line was then continued by the 1982 constitution, which restored the basic autonomous rights of national regions, including the right to issue regulations on autonomy and to form local public security forces. The volost level of government and administration was also recreated and separated from the people's communes.
At the end of the 18th century. The Qing Empire, in comparison with the developed capitalist countries of Europe and the United States, remained a backward agrarian country, albeit with very productive (by medieval standards) agriculture, superior to handicraft production in terms of labor productivity. Feudal Qing society mid-19th V. received from the past almost untouched the burden of ossified Confucian traditions, medieval institutions, social and economic relations. The entire production life of the peasant country rested on the dominance of manual labor.
The organization and equipment of the army and navy were at the medieval level. The constant surplus of labor and the pressure of this factor on the means of production led to technical stagnation, making it almost unnecessary to improve tools. At the same time, the development of scientific and technological thought in old China was hampered by the withering influence of Confucian scholasticism.
The Qing Empire, created by the Manchu Bogdykhans through wars of conquest, consisted of Manchuria - the homeland and domain of the conquerors and the lands they conquered. The latter included China proper (18 provinces) and dependent territories - Mongolia, Xinjiang, Tibet. The factor of conquest determined both the ethnic composition of the empire and the peculiar hierarchy within it. The dominant position was occupied by the Manchus and their accomplices in the conquest of other lands - the “banner” Mongols and the “banner” Chinese.
Below stood the rest of the Mongols, in whose cavalry the Manchu rulers were interested. Even lower are the actual Chinese (Han). As conquered people, they were considered “second-class” people. At the next level were the “internal barbarians,” i.e., non-Han peoples - Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Tibetans, Dungans. At the very bottom of this “pyramid” stood the small peoples of Southwestern China - the Miao, Yi, Zhuang, Bui, etc., who were considered “wild”. Such a “pyramid” made it possible to apply the traditional concepts of Chinese emperors, officials and feudal lords. The principle of “disconnect and subdue” was widely used. Thus, one part of the Mongols was included in the “banners”, and the other was placed under the supervision of the conquerors. The Han Confucians were set against the Dungans. The same practice was widely used among the Han people themselves, when the indigenous people and settlers mutually exterminated each other, as well as among various Muslim nationalities. China in modern times...
Periodic provocation of ethnic hatred bled the peoples, thereby strengthening Manchu rule. The Qing Empire was torn apart by national contradictions. In China proper, such antagonism remained the hatred of the Han people towards the conquerors - the Manchus. Main slogan popular uprisings- “Let’s overthrow the Qing, restore the Ming,” that is, the expulsion of the conquerors and the revival of Chinese power. The doctrine of “ruling barbarians with the hands of barbarians” was equally widely implemented by the emperors. According to it, to keep non-Han peoples in obedience, the Bogdykhan and the Chinese bureaucracy widely used local exploiters - tuses in the South-West, beks in Xinjiang, princes in Mongolia, kalons in Tibet. Another doctrine is “turning barbarians into Han Chinese.”
It led to the assimilation of non-Han peoples by the Chinese and was steadily carried out both in the South-West and in dependent territories and served to expand the Chinese territories through the gradual absorption of semi-independent areas of other nationalities. Thus, in the South-West, the practice of replacing local elders with Chinese officials steadily expanded. The transformation of zones of rule of local exploiters into Chinese counties and districts led to the forced assimilation of other peoples. Thus, the traditional policy of “eating the mulberry leaf with a silkworm” was implemented, i.e., the gradual absorption by China of the lands of “barbarians”, “dependent territories”, as well as neighboring countries.
