Bioorganic chemistry is a fundamental science that studies the structure and biological functions of the most important components of living matter, primarily biopolymers and low-molecular bioregulators, focusing on elucidating the patterns of the relationship between the structure of compounds and their biological effects.

Bioorganic chemistry is a science at the intersection of chemistry and biology; it helps to reveal the principles of functioning of living systems. Bioorganic chemistry has a pronounced practical orientation, being the theoretical basis for obtaining new valuable compounds for medicine, agriculture, chemical, food and microbiological industries. The range of interests of bioorganic chemistry is unusually wide - this includes the world of substances isolated from living nature and playing an important role in life, and the world of artificially produced organic compounds having biological activity. Bioorganic chemistry covers the chemistry of all substances of a living cell, tens and hundreds of thousands of compounds.

Objects of study, research methods and main tasks of bioorganic chemistry

Objects of study bioorganic chemistry are proteins and peptides, carbohydrates, lipids, mixed biopolymers - glycoproteins, nucleoproteins, lipoproteins, glycolipids, etc., alkaloids, terpenoids, vitamins, antibiotics, hormones, prostaglandins, pheromones, toxins, as well as synthetic regulators of biological processes : medicines, pesticides, etc.

The main arsenal of research methods bioorganic chemistry consists of methods; Physical, physico-chemical, mathematical and biological methods are used to solve structural problems.

Main tasks bioorganic chemistry are:

• Isolation in an individual state and purification of the studied compounds using crystallization, distillation, various types chromatography, electrophoresis, ultrafiltration, ultracentrifugation, etc. In this case, specific biological functions of the substance being studied are often used (for example, the purity of an antibiotic is monitored by its antimicrobial activity, of a hormone by its effect on a certain physiological process, etc.);
• Establishment of structure, including spatial structure, based on organic chemistry approaches (hydrolysis, oxidative cleavage, cleavage into specific fragments, for example, at methionine residues when establishing the structure of peptides and proteins, cleavage at 1,2-diol groups of carbohydrates, etc.) and physical-chemical chemistry using mass spectrometry, various types of optical spectroscopy (IR, UV, laser, etc.), X-ray diffraction analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance, electron paramagnetic resonance, optical rotation dispersion and circular dichroism, fast kinetics methods, etc. in combination with calculations on COMPUTER. To quickly solve standard problems associated with establishing the structure of a number of biopolymers, automatic devices have been created and are widely used, the operating principle of which is based on standard reactions and properties of natural and biologically active compounds. These are analyzers for determining the quantitative amino acid composition of peptides, sequencers for confirming or establishing the sequence of amino acid residues in peptides and the nucleotide sequence in nucleic acids ah, etc. When studying the structure of complex biopolymers, the use of enzymes that specifically break down the compounds under study along strictly defined bonds is important. Such enzymes are used in studying the structure of proteins (trypsin, proteinases that cleave peptide bonds at glutamic acid, proline and other amino acid residues), nucleic acids and polynucleotides (nucleases, restriction enzymes), carbohydrate-containing polymers (glycosidases, including specific ones - galactosidases , glucuronidases, etc.). To increase the effectiveness of research, not only natural compounds are analyzed, but also their derivatives containing characteristic, specially introduced groups and labeled atoms. Such derivatives are obtained, for example, by growing the producer on a medium containing labeled amino acids or other radioactive precursors, which include tritium, radioactive carbon or phosphorus. The reliability of the data obtained from the study of complex proteins increases significantly if this study is carried out in conjunction with a study of the structure of the corresponding genes.
• Chemical synthesis and chemical modification of the studied compounds, including total synthesis, synthesis of analogues and derivatives. For low molecular weight compounds, counter synthesis is still an important criterion for the correctness of the established structure. The development of methods for the synthesis of natural and biologically active compounds is necessary to solve the next important problem of bioorganic chemistry - elucidating the relationship between their structure and biological function.
• Clarification of the relationship between the structure and biological functions of biopolymers and low-molecular bioregulators; studying chemical mechanisms their biological action. This aspect of bioorganic chemistry is becoming increasingly practical significance. Improving the arsenal of methods for chemical and chemical-enzymatic synthesis of complex biopolymers (biologically active peptides, proteins, polynucleotides, nucleic acids, including actively functioning genes) in combination with increasingly improved techniques for the synthesis of relatively simpler bioregulators, as well as methods for selective cleavage of biopolymers, allow deeper understand the dependence of biological effects on the structure of compounds. The use of highly efficient computing technology makes it possible to objectively compare numerous data from different researchers and find common patterns. The found particular and general patterns, in turn, stimulate and facilitate the synthesis of new compounds, which in some cases (for example, when studying peptides that affect brain activity) makes it possible to find practically important synthetic compounds that are superior in biological activity to their natural analogues. The study of chemical mechanisms of biological action opens up the possibility of creating biologically active compounds with predetermined properties.
• Obtaining practically valuable drugs.
• Biological testing of the obtained compounds.

The formation of bioorganic chemistry. Historical reference

The emergence of bioorganic chemistry in the world took place in the late 50s and early 60s, when the main objects of research in this area were four classes of organic compounds that play a key role in the life of cells and organisms - proteins, polysaccharides and lipids. Outstanding Achievements traditional chemistry of natural compounds, such as the discovery by L. Pauling of the α-helix as one of the main elements of the spatial structure of the polypeptide chain in proteins, the establishment by A. Todd of the chemical structure of nucleotides and the first synthesis of a dinucleotide, the development by F. Sanger of a method for determining the amino acid sequence in proteins and decoding with its help, the structure of insulin, the synthesis by R. Woodward of such complex natural compounds as reserpine, chlorophyll and vitamin B 12, the synthesis of the first peptide hormone oxytocin, essentially marked the transformation of the chemistry of natural compounds into modern bioorganic chemistry.

However, in our country, interest in proteins and nucleic acids arose much earlier. The first studies on the chemistry of proteins and nucleic acids began in the mid-20s. within the walls of Moscow University, and it was here that the first scientific schools were formed, successfully working in these most important areas of natural science to this day. So, in the 20s. on the initiative of N.D. Zelinsky began systematic research on protein chemistry, the main task of which was to clarify the general principles of the structure of protein molecules. N.D. Zelinsky created the first protein chemistry laboratory in our country, in which important work on the synthesis and structural analysis of amino acids and peptides was carried out. An outstanding role in the development of these works belongs to M.M. Botvinnik and her students, who achieved impressive results in studying the structure and mechanism of action of inorganic pyrophosphatases, key enzymes of phosphorus metabolism in the cell. By the end of the 40s, when the leading role of nucleic acids in genetic processes began to emerge, M.A. Prokofiev and Z.A. Shabarova began work on the synthesis of nucleic acid components and their derivatives, thereby marking the beginning of nucleic acid chemistry in our country. The first syntheses of nucleosides, nucleotides and oligonucleotides were carried out, and a great contribution was made to the creation of domestic automatic nucleic acid synthesizers.

In the 60s This direction in our country has developed consistently and rapidly, often ahead of similar steps and trends abroad. The fundamental discoveries of A.N. played a huge role in the development of bioorganic chemistry. Belozersky, who proved the existence of DNA in higher plants and systematically studied the chemical composition of nucleic acids, the classical studies of V.A. Engelhardt and V.A. Belitser on the oxidative mechanism of phosphorylation, world-famous studies by A.E. Arbuzov on the chemistry of physiologically active organophosphorus compounds, as well as fundamental works by I.N. Nazarov and N.A. Preobrazhensky on the synthesis of various natural substances and their analogues and other works. The greatest achievements in the creation and development of bioorganic chemistry in the USSR belong to Academician M.M. Shemyakin. In particular, he began work on the study of atypical peptides - depsipeptides, which subsequently received widespread development in connection with their function as ionophores. The talent, insight and vigorous activity of this and other scientists contributed to the rapid growth of the international authority of Soviet bioorganic chemistry, its consolidation in the most relevant areas and organizational strengthening in our country.

In the late 60s - early 70s. in the synthesis of biologically active compounds complex structure began to use enzymes as catalysts (the so-called combined chemical-enzymatic synthesis). This approach was used by G. Korana for the first gene synthesis. The use of enzymes made it possible to carry out strictly selective transformation of a number of natural compounds and obtain new biologically active derivatives of peptides, oligosaccharides and nucleic acids in high yield. In the 70s The most intensively developed areas of bioorganic chemistry were the synthesis of oligonucleotides and genes, studies of cell membranes and polysaccharides, and analysis of the primary and spatial structures of proteins. The structures of important enzymes (transaminase, β-galactosidase, DNA-dependent RNA polymerase), protective proteins (γ-globulins, interferons), membrane proteins(adenosine triphosphatases, bacteriorhodopsin). Great importance acquired work on studying the structure and mechanism of action of peptides - regulators of nervous activity (so-called neuropeptides).

Modern domestic bioorganic chemistry

Currently, domestic bioorganic chemistry occupies leading positions in the world in a number of key areas. Major advances have been made in the study of the structure and function of biologically active peptides and complex proteins, including hormones, antibiotics, and neurotoxins. Important results have been obtained in the chemistry of membrane-active peptides. The reasons for the unique selectivity and effectiveness of the action of dispepside-ionophores were investigated and the mechanism of functioning in living systems was elucidated. Synthetic analogues of ionophores with specified properties have been obtained, which are many times more effective than natural samples (V.T. Ivanov, Yu.A. Ovchinnikov). The unique properties of ionophores are used to create ion-selective sensors based on them, which are widely used in technology. The successes achieved in the study of another group of regulators - neurotoxins, which are inhibitors of the transmission of nerve impulses, have led to their widespread use as tools for studying membrane receptors and other specific structures of cell membranes (E.V. Grishin). The development of work on the synthesis and study of peptide hormones has led to the creation of highly effective analogues of the hormones oxytocin, angiotensin II and bradykinin, which are responsible for the contraction of smooth muscles and the regulation of blood pressure. A major success was the complete chemical synthesis of insulin preparations, including human insulin (N.A. Yudaev, Yu.P. Shvachkin, etc.). A number of protein antibiotics were discovered and studied, including gramicidin S, polymyxin M, actinoxanthin (G.F. Gause, A.S. Khokhlov, etc.). Work is actively developing to study the structure and function of membrane proteins that perform receptor and transport functions. The photoreceptor proteins rhodopsin and bacteriorhodopsin were obtained and the physicochemical basis of their functioning as light-dependent ion pumps was studied (V.P. Skulachev, Yu.A. Ovchinnikov, M.A. Ostrovsky). The structure and mechanism of functioning of ribosomes, the main systems for protein biosynthesis in the cell, are widely studied (A.S. Spirin, A.A. Bogdanov). Large cycles of research are associated with the study of enzymes, determination of their primary structure and spatial structure, study of catalytic functions (aspartate aminotransferases, pepsin, chymotrypsin, ribonucleases, phosphorus metabolism enzymes, glycosidases, cholinesterases, etc.). Methods for the synthesis and chemical modification of nucleic acids and their components have been developed (D.G. Knorre, M.N. Kolosov, Z.A. Shabarova), approaches are being developed to create new generation drugs based on them for the treatment of viral, oncological and autoimmune diseases. Using the unique properties of nucleic acids and on their basis, diagnostic drugs and biosensors, analyzers for a number of biologically active compounds are created (V.A. Vlasov, Yu.M. Evdokimov, etc.)

Significant progress has been made in the synthetic chemistry of carbohydrates (synthesis of bacterial antigens and the creation of artificial vaccines, synthesis of specific inhibitors of the sorption of viruses on the cell surface, synthesis of specific inhibitors of bacterial toxins (N.K. Kochetkov, A.Ya. Khorlin)). Significant progress has been made in the study of lipids, lipoamino acids, lipopeptides and lipoproteins (L.D. Bergelson, N.M. Sisakyan). Methods have been developed for the synthesis of many biologically active fatty acids, lipids and phospholipids. The transmembrane distribution of lipids in various types of liposomes, in bacterial membranes and in liver microsomes was studied.

An important area of ​​bioorganic chemistry is the study of a variety of natural and synthetic substances that can regulate various processes occurring in living cells. These are repellents, antibiotics, pheromones, signaling substances, enzymes, hormones, vitamins and others (so-called low-molecular regulators). Methods have been developed for the synthesis and production of almost all known vitamins, a significant part of steroid hormones and antibiotics. Industrial methods have been developed for the production of a number of coenzymes used as medicinal preparations (coenzyme Q, pyridoxal phosphate, thiamine pyrophosphate, etc.). New strong anabolic agents have been proposed that are superior in action to well-known foreign drugs (I.V. Torgov, S.N. Ananchenko). The biogenesis and mechanisms of action of natural and transformed steroids have been studied. Significant progress has been made in the study of alkaloids, steroid and triterpene glycosides, and coumarins. Original research was carried out in the field of pesticide chemistry, which led to the release of a number of valuable drugs (I.N. Kabachnik, N.N. Melnikov, etc.). An active search is underway for new drugs needed to treat various diseases. Drugs have been obtained that have proven their effectiveness in the treatment of a number of oncological diseases (dopane, sarcolysin, ftorafur, etc.).

Priority directions and prospects for the development of bioorganic chemistry

Priority directions scientific research in the field of bioorganic chemistry are:

• study of the structural-functional dependence of biologically active compounds;
• design and synthesis of new biologically active drugs, including the creation of medicines and plant protection products;
• research into highly efficient biotechnological processes;
• study of the molecular mechanisms of processes occurring in a living organism.

Focused fundamental research in the field of bioorganic chemistry is aimed at studying the structure and function of the most important biopolymers and low-molecular bioregulators, including proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, lipids, alkaloids, prostaglandins and other compounds. Bioorganic chemistry is closely related to the practical problems of medicine and agriculture (production of vitamins, hormones, antibiotics and other medicines, plant growth stimulants and regulators of animal and insect behavior), chemical, food and microbiological industries. The results of scientific research are the basis for creating a scientific and technical base for production technologies modern means medical immunodiagnostics, reagents for medical genetic research and reagents for biochemical analysis, technologies for the synthesis of drug substances for use in oncology, virology, endocrinology, gastroenterology, as well as chemical plant protection products and technologies for their use in agriculture.

Solving the main problems of bioorganic chemistry is important for the further progress of biology, chemistry and a number of technical sciences. Without elucidating the structure and properties of the most important biopolymers and bioregulators, it is impossible to understand the essence of life processes, much less find ways to control such complex phenomena as reproduction and transmission of hereditary characteristics, normal and malignant cell growth, immunity, memory, transmission of nerve impulses and much more. At the same time, the study of highly specialized biologically active substances and the processes occurring with their participation can open up fundamentally new opportunities for the development of chemistry, chemical technology and technology. Problems whose solution is associated with research in the field of bioorganic chemistry include the creation of strictly specific highly active catalysts (based on the study of the structure and mechanism of action of enzymes), the direct conversion of chemical energy into mechanical energy (based on the study of muscle contraction), and use in technology. chemical principles storage and transmission of information carried out in biological systems, the principles of self-regulation of multicomponent cell systems, primarily the selective permeability of biological membranes, and much more. The listed problems lie far beyond the boundaries of bioorganic chemistry itself, however, it creates the basic prerequisites for the development of these problems, providing the main strongholds for the development of biochemical research, already related to the field of molecular biology. The breadth and importance of the problems being solved, the variety of methods and close connections with others scientific disciplines provide fast development bioorganic chemistry.. Bulletin of Moscow University, series 2, Chemistry. 1999. T. 40. No. 5. P. 327-329.

Bender M., Bergeron R., Komiyama M. Bioorganic chemistry of enzymatic catalysis. Per. from English M.: Mir, 1987. 352 S.

Yakovishin L.A. Selected Chapters of Bioorganic Chemistry. Sevastopol: Strizhak-press, 2006. 196 pp.

Nikolaev A.Ya. Biological Chemistry. M.: Medical Information Agency, 2001. 496 pp.

Bioorganic chemistry. Tyukavkina N.A., Baukov Yu.I.

3rd ed., revised. and additional - M.: 2004 - 544 p.

The main feature of the textbook is the combination of the medical focus of this chemical course, required for medical students, with its high, fundamental scientific level. The textbook includes basic material on the structure and reactivity organic compounds, including biopolymers, which are structural components of the cell, as well as main metabolites and low-molecular bioregulators. In the third edition (2nd - 1991), special attention is paid to compounds and reactions that have analogies in a living organism, the emphasis on highlighting the biological role of important classes of compounds is increased, and the range of modern information of an ecological and toxicological nature is expanded. For university students studying in specialties 040100 General Medicine, 040200 Pediatrics, 040300 Medical and Preventive Medicine, 040400 Dentistry.

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CONTENT
Preface................................... 7
Introduction........................ 9
Part I
BASICS OF STRUCTURE AND REACTIVITY OF ORGANIC COMPOUNDS
Chapter 1. General characteristics of organic compounds 16
1.1. Classification. "................ 16
1.2. .Nomenclature............... 20
1.2.1. Substitute nomenclature........... 23
1.2.2. Radical functional nomenclature........ 28
Chapter 2. Chemical bonding and mutual influence of atoms in organic
connections......................... 29
2.1. Electronic structure of organogen elements...... 29
2.1.1. Atomic orbitals................ 29
2.1.2. Orbital hybridization......................... 30
2.2. Covalent bonds......................... 33
2.2.1. a- and l-Connections......................... 34
2.2.2. Donor-acceptor bonds............ 38
2.2.3. Hydrogen bonds......................... 39
2.3. Conjugation and aromaticity............ 40
2.3.1. Open circuit systems... ,..... 41
2.3.2. Closed-loop systems........ 45
2.3.3. Electronic effects......................... 49
Chapter 3. Fundamentals of the structure of organic compounds....... 51
3.1. Chemical structure and structural isomerism...... 52
3.2. Spatial structure and stereoisomerism...... 54
3.2.1. Configuration................... 55
3.2.2. Conformation................... 57
3.2.3. Elements of symmetry of molecules............ 68
3.2.4. Eianthiomerism............... 72
3.2.5. Diastereomerism............
3.2.6. Racemates................... 80
3.3. Enantiotopy, diastereotopy. . ......... 82
Chapter 4 General characteristics of reactions of organic compounds 88
4.1. The concept of the reaction mechanism..... 88
3
11.2. Primary structure peptides and proteins........ 344
11.2.1. Composition and amino acid sequence...... 345
11.2.2. Structure and synthesis of peptides............ 351
11.3. Spatial structure of polypeptides and proteins.... 361
Chapter 12. Carbohydrates.................................... 377
12.1. Monosaccharides................... 378
12.1.1. Structure and stereoisomerism......................... 378
12.1.2. Tautomerism..............." . 388
12.1.3. Conformations................... 389
12.1.4. Derivatives of monosaccharides............ 391
12.1.5. Chemical properties............... 395
12.2. Disaccharides................... 407
12.3. Polysaccharides................... 413
12.3.1. Homopolysaccharides............... 414
12.3.2. Heteropolysaccharides............... 420
Chapter 13. Nucleotides and nucleic acids.........431
13.1. Nucleosides and nucleotides.............. 431
13.2. Structure of nucleic acids........... 441
13.3 Nucleoside polyphosphates. Nicotinamide nucleotides..... 448
Chapter 14. Lipids and low-molecular bioregulators...... 457
14.1. Saponifiable lipids......................... 458
14.1.1. Higher fatty acids - structural components saponifiable lipids 458
14.1.2. Simple lipids................ 461
14.1.3. Complex lipids................ 462
14.1.4. Some properties of saponified lipids and their structural components 467
14.2. Unsaponifiable lipids 472
14.2.1. Terpenes......... ...... 473
14.2.2. Low molecular weight bioregulators of lipid nature. . . 477
14.2.3. Steroids................... 483
14.2.4. Biosynthesis of terpenes and steroids........... 492
Chapter 15. Methods for studying organic compounds...... 495
15.1. Chromatography................... 496
15.2. Analysis of organic compounds. . ........ 500
15.3. Spectral methods................... 501
15.3.1. Electron spectroscopy............... 501
15.3.2. Infrared spectroscopy............ 504
15.3.3. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy...... 506
15.3.4. Electron paramagnetic resonance......... 509
15.3.5. Mass spectrometry............... 510

Preface
Over the centuries-old history of the development of natural science, a close relationship has been established between medicine and chemistry. The current deep interpenetration of these sciences leads to the emergence of new scientific directions that study the molecular nature of individual physiological processes, the molecular basis of the pathogenesis of diseases, molecular aspects of pharmacology, etc. The need to understand life processes at the molecular level is understandable, “because living cell- a real kingdom of large and small molecules, continuously interacting, arising and disappearing”*.
Bioorganic chemistry studies biologically significant substances and can serve as a “molecular tool” for the versatile study of cell components.
Bioorganic chemistry plays an important role in the development of modern fields of medicine and is an integral part of the natural science education of a doctor.
The progress of medical science and improvement of healthcare are associated with deep fundamental training of specialists. The relevance of this approach is largely determined by the transformation of medicine into a large industry social sphere, whose field of view includes problems of ecology, toxicology, biotechnology, etc.
Due to the absence in the curricula of medical universities general course organic chemistry in this textbook a certain place is given to the basics of organic chemistry, necessary for the assimilation of bioorganic chemistry. In preparing the third edition (2nd - 1992), the textbook material was revised and brought even closer to the tasks of perceiving medical knowledge. The range of compounds and reactions that have analogies in living organisms has been expanded. More attention is paid to environmental and toxicological information. Elements of a purely chemical nature, which are not of fundamental importance for medical education, have undergone some reduction, in particular, methods for obtaining organic compounds, the properties of a number of individual representatives, etc. At the same time, sections have been expanded to include material on the relationship between the structure of organic substances and their biological acting as the molecular basis for the action of drugs. The structure of the textbook has been improved, it has been placed in separate sections chemical material, having a special medical biological significance.
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Professors S. E. Zurabyan, I. Yu. Belavin, I. A. Selivanova, as well as all colleagues for useful tips and assistance in preparing the manuscript for republication.

Grodno" href="/text/category/grodno/" rel="bookmark">Grodno State Medical University", Candidate of Chemical Sciences, Associate Professor;

Associate Professor of the Department of General and Bioorganic Chemistry of the Educational Institution "Grodno State Medical University", Candidate of Biological Sciences, Associate Professor

Reviewers:

Department of General and Bioorganic Chemistry of the Educational Institution “Gomel State Medical University”;

– head Department of Bioorganic Chemistry Educational Institution "Belarusian State Medical University", Candidate of Medical Sciences, Associate Professor.

Department of General and Bioorganic Chemistry of the Educational Institution "Grodno State Medical University"

(minutes dated January 1, 2001)

Central Scientific and Methodological Council of the Educational Institution "Grodno State Medical University"

(minutes dated January 1, 2001)

Section in the specialty 1Medical and psychological affairs of the educational and methodological association of universities of the Republic of Belarus for medical education

(minutes dated January 1, 2001)

Responsible for release:

First Vice-Rector of the Educational Institution "Grodno State Medical University", Professor, Doctor of Medical Sciences

Explanatory note

The relevance of studying the academic discipline

"Bioorganic chemistry"

Bioorganic chemistry is a fundamental natural science discipline. Bioorganic chemistry emerged as an independent science in the 2nd half of the 20th century at the intersection of organic chemistry and biochemistry. The relevance of the study of bioorganic chemistry is due to the practical problems facing medicine and agriculture (obtaining vitamins, hormones, antibiotics, plant growth stimulants, regulators of animal and insect behavior, and other medicines), the solution of which is impossible without using the theoretical and practical potential of bioorganic chemistry.

Bioorganic chemistry is constantly being enriched with new methods for the isolation and purification of natural compounds, methods for the synthesis of natural compounds and their analogues, knowledge about the relationship between the structure and biological activity of compounds, etc.

The latest approaches to medical education, related to overcoming the reproductive style in teaching, ensuring cognitive and research activity of students, open up new prospects for realizing the potential of both the individual and the team.

The purpose and objectives of the academic discipline

Target: formation of a level of chemical competence in the medical education system, ensuring subsequent study of biomedical and clinical disciplines.

Tasks:

Students mastering the theoretical foundations of chemical transformations of organic molecules in relation to their structure and biological activity;

Formation: knowledge molecular basis vital processes;

Development of skills to navigate the classification, structure and properties of organic compounds acting as medicines;

Formation of the logic of chemical thinking;

Development of skills to use qualitative analysis methods
organic compounds;

Chemical knowledge and skills, which form the basis of chemical competence, will contribute to the formation of the graduate’s professional competence.

Requirements for mastering the academic discipline

The requirements for the level of mastery of the content of the discipline “Bioorganic Chemistry” are determined by the educational standard of higher education of the first stage in the cycle of general professional and special disciplines, which was developed taking into account the requirements of the competency-based approach, which indicates the minimum content for the discipline in the form of generalized chemical knowledge and skills that make up the bioorganic competence of a university graduate:

a) generalized knowledge:

- understand the essence of the subject as a science and its connections with other disciplines;

Significance in understanding metabolic processes;

The concept of the unity of structure and reactivity of organic molecules;

Fundamental laws of chemistry necessary to explain the processes occurring in living organisms;

Chemical properties and biological significance of the main classes of organic compounds.

b) generalized skills:

Predict the reaction mechanism based on knowledge of the structure of organic molecules and methods of breaking chemical bonds;

Explain the significance of reactions for the functioning of living systems;

Use the acquired knowledge when studying biochemistry, pharmacology and other disciplines.

Structure and content of the academic discipline

In this program, the structure of the content of the discipline “bioorganic chemistry” consists of an introduction to the discipline and two sections that cover general issues of the reactivity of organic molecules, as well as the properties of hetero- and polyfunctional compounds involved in vital processes. Each section is divided into topics arranged in a sequence that ensures optimal learning and assimilation of the program material. For each topic, generalized knowledge and skills are presented that constitute the essence of students’ bioorganic competence. In accordance with the content of each topic, requirements for competencies are determined (in the form of a system of generalized knowledge and skills), for the formation and diagnosis of which tests can be developed.

Teaching methods

The main teaching methods that adequately meet the objectives of studying this discipline are:

Explanation and consultation;

Laboratory lesson;

Elements problem-based learning(educational and research work of students);

Introduction to Bioorganic Chemistry

Bioorganic chemistry is a science that studies the structure of organic substances and their transformations in relation to biological functions. Objects of study of bioorganic chemistry. The role of bioorganic chemistry in the formation of a scientific basis for the perception of biological and medical knowledge at the modern molecular level.

The theory of the structure of organic compounds and its development at the present stage. Isomerism of organic compounds as the basis for the diversity of organic compounds. Types of isomerism of organic compounds.

Physicochemical methods for the isolation and study of organic compounds that are important for biomedical analysis.

Basic rules of IUPAC systematic nomenclature for organic compounds: substitutional and radical-functional nomenclature.

Spatial structure of organic molecules, its connection with the type of hybridization of the carbon atom (sp3-, sp2- and sp-hybridization). Stereochemical formulas. Configuration and conformation. Conformations of open chains (occluded, inhibited, canted). Energy characteristics of conformations. Projection formulas Newman. Spatial proximity of certain sections of the chain as a consequence of conformational equilibrium and as one of the reasons for the predominant formation of five- and six-membered cycles. Conformations of cyclic compounds (cyclohexane, tetrahydropyran). Energy characteristics of chair and bathtub conformations. Axial and equatorial connections. Relationship between spatial structure and biological activity.

Competency requirements:

· Know the objects of study and the main tasks of bioorganic chemistry,

· Be able to classify organic compounds according to the structure of the carbon skeleton and their nature functional groups, use the rules of systematic chemical nomenclature.

· Know the main types of isomerism of organic compounds, be able to structural formula compounds to determine possible types of isomers.

· Know the different types of hybridization of carbon atomic orbitals, the spatial direction of atomic bonds, their type and number depending on the type of hybridization.

· Know the energy characteristics of the conformations of cyclic (chair, bathtub conformations) and acyclic (inhibited, oblique, eclipsed conformations) molecules, be able to depict them using Newman’s projection formulas.

· Know the types of stresses (torsional, angular, van der Waals) that arise in various molecules, their effect on the stability of the conformation and the molecule as a whole.

Section 1. The reactivity of organic molecules as a result of the mutual influence of atoms, mechanisms of occurrence organic reactions

Topic 1. Conjugated systems, aromaticity, electronic effects of substituents

Conjugated systems and aromaticity. Conjugation (p, p- and p, p-conjugation). Conjugated open-chain systems: 1,3-dienes (butadiene, isoprene), polyenes (carotenoids, vitamin A). Coupled closed-circuit systems. Aromaticity: criteria for aromaticity, Hückel's rule of aromaticity. Aromaticity of benzenoid (benzene, naphthalene, phenanthrene) compounds. Conjugation energy. Structure and reasons for the thermodynamic stability of carbo- and heterocyclic aromatic compounds. Aromaticity of heterocyclic (pyrrole, imidazole, pyridine, pyrimidine, purine) compounds. Pyrrole and pyridine nitrogen atoms, p-excessive and p-deficient aromatic systems.

Mutual influence of atoms and methods of its transmission in organic molecules. Delocalization of electrons as one of the factors increasing the stability of molecules and ions, its widespread occurrence in biologically important molecules (porphin, heme, hemoglobin, etc.). Polarization of connections. Electronic effects of substituents (inductive and mesomeric) as the cause of the uneven distribution of electron density and the emergence of reaction centers in the molecule. Inductive and mesomeric effects (positive and negative), their graphic designation in the structural formulas of organic compounds. Electron-donating and electron-withdrawing substituents.

Competency requirements:

· Know the types of conjugation and be able to determine the type of conjugation based on the structural formula of the compound.

· Know the criteria for aromaticity, be able to determine the aromatic compounds of carbo- and heterocyclic molecules using the structural formula.

· Be able to evaluate the electronic contribution of atoms to the creation of a single conjugated system, know the electronic structure of pyridine and pyrrole nitrogen atoms.

· Know the electronic effects of substituents, the reasons for their occurrence and be able to graphically depict their effect.

· Be able to classify substituents as electron-donating or electron-withdrawing based on the inductive and mesomeric effects they exhibit.

· Be able to predict the effect of substituents on the reactivity of molecules.

Topic 2. Reactivity of hydrocarbons. Radical substitution, electrophilic addition and substitution reactions

General patterns of reactivity of organic compounds as the chemical basis of their biological functioning. Chemical reaction as a process. Concepts: substrate, reagent, reaction center, transition state, reaction product, activation energy, reaction rate, mechanism.

Classification of organic reactions by result (addition, substitution, elimination, redox) and by mechanism - radical, ionic (electrophilic, nucleophilic), concerted. Types of reagents: radical, acidic, basic, electrophilic, nucleophilic. Homolytic and heterolytic rupture covalent bond in organic compounds and the resulting particles: free radicals, carbocations and carbanions. Electronic and spatial structure of these particles and factors determining their relative stability.

Reactivity of hydrocarbons. Radical substitution reactions: homolytic reactions involving CH bonds of the sp3-hybridized carbon atom. The mechanism of radical substitution using the example of the halogenation reaction of alkanes and cycloalkanes. The concept of chain processes. The concept of regioselectivity.

Pathways for the formation of free radicals: photolysis, thermolysis, redox reactions.

Electrophilic addition reactions ( A.E.) in a row unsaturated hydrocarbons: heterolytic reactions involving p-bonds between sp2-hybridized carbon atoms. Mechanism of hydration and hydrohalogenation reactions. Acid catalysis. Markovnikov's rule. Influence of static and dynamic factors on the regioselectivity of electrophilic addition reactions. Features of electrophilic addition reactions to diene hydrocarbons and small cycles (cyclopropane, cyclobutane).

Electrophilic substitution reactions ( S.E.): heterolytic reactions involving the p-electron cloud of the aromatic system. Mechanism of reactions of halogenation, nitration, alkylation of aromatic compounds: p - and s- complexes. The role of the catalyst (Lewis acid) in the formation of an electrophilic particle.

The influence of substituents in aromatic core on the reactivity of compounds in electrophilic substitution reactions. Orienting influence of substituents (orientants of the first and second kind).

Competency requirements:

· Know the concepts of substrate, reagent, reaction center, reaction product, activation energy, reaction rate, reaction mechanism.

· Know the classification of reactions according to various criteria (by the final result, by the method of breaking bonds, by mechanism) and the types of reagents (radical, electrophilic, nucleophilic).

· Know the electronic and spatial structure of reagents and the factors determining their relative stability, be able to compare the relative stability of reagents of the same type.

· Know the methods of formation of free radicals and the mechanism of radical substitution reactions (SR) using examples of halogenation reactions of alkanes and cycloalakane.

· Be able to determine the statistical probability of the formation of possible products in radical substitution reactions and the possibility of regioselective occurrence of the process.

· Know the mechanism of electrophilic addition (AE) reactions in the reactions of halogenation, hydrohalogenation and hydration of alkenes, be able to qualitatively assess the reactivity of substrates based on the electronic effects of substituents.

· Know Markovnikov's rule and be able to determine the regioselectivity of the reactions of hydration and hydrohalogenation based on the influence of static and dynamic factors.

· Know the features of electrophilic addition reactions to conjugated diene hydrocarbons and small cycles (cyclopropane, cyclobutane).

· Know the mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions (SE) in the reactions of halogenation, nitration, alkylation, acylation of aromatic compounds.

· Be able to determine, based on the electronic effects of substituents, their influence on the reactivity of the aromatic ring and their orienting effect.

Topic 3. Acid-base properties of organic compounds

Acidity and basicity of organic compounds: theories of Brønsted and Lewis. The stability of an acid anion is a qualitative indicator of acidic properties. General patterns in changes in acidic or basic properties in connection with the nature of the atoms in the acidic or basic center, the electronic effects of substituents at these centers. Acidic properties of organic compounds with hydrogen-containing functional groups (alcohols, phenols, thiols, carboxylic acids, amines, CH-acidity of molecules and cabrications). p-bases and n- grounds. Basic properties of neutral molecules containing heteroatoms with lone pairs of electrons (alcohols, thiols, sulfides, amines) and anions (hydroxide, alkoxide ions, anions of organic acids). Acid-base properties of nitrogen-containing heterocycles (pyrrole, imidazole, pyridine). Hydrogen bonding as a specific manifestation of acid-base properties.

Comparative characteristics of the acidic properties of compounds containing a hydroxyl group (monohydric and polyhydric alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids). Comparative characteristics of the basic properties of aliphatic and aromatic amines. Influence of the electronic nature of the substituent on the acid-base properties of organic molecules.

Competency requirements:

· Know the definitions of acids and bases according to Bronsted's protolytic theory and Lewis's electron theory.

· Know the Bronsted classification of acids and bases depending on the nature of the atoms of the acidic or basic centers.

· Know the factors influencing the strength of acids and the stability of their conjugate bases, be able to carry out comparative assessment the strength of acids based on the stability of their corresponding anions.

· Know the factors influencing the strength of Bronsted bases, be able to conduct a comparative assessment of the strength of the bases taking into account these factors.

· Know the reasons for the occurrence of a hydrogen bond, be able to interpret the formation of a hydrogen bond as a specific manifestation of the acid-base properties of a substance.

· Know the reasons for the occurrence of keto-enol tautomerism in organic molecules, be able to explain them from the perspective of the acid-base properties of compounds in connection with their biological activity.

· Know and be able to carry out qualitative reactions, allowing to distinguish polyhydric alcohols, phenols, thiols.

Topic 4. Nucleophilic substitution reactions at the tetragonal carbon atom and competitive elimination reactions

Nucleophilic substitution reactions at the sp3-hybridized carbon atom: heterolytic reactions caused by polarization of the carbon-heteroatom bond (halogen derivatives, alcohols). Groups that leave easily and difficultly: the connection between the ease of leaving a group and its structure. The influence of solvent, electronic and spatial factors on the reactivity of compounds in reactions of mono- and bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1 and SN2). Stereochemistry of nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Hydrolysis reactions of halogen derivatives. Alkylation reactions of alcohols, phenols, thiols, sulfides, ammonia, amines. The role of acid catalysis in nucleophilic substitution of the hydroxyl group. Halogen derivatives, alcohols, esters of sulfuric and phosphoric acids as alkylating reagents. Biological role alkylation reactions.

Mono- and bimolecular elimination reactions (E1 and E2): (dehydration, dehydrohalogenation). Increased CH acidity as a cause of elimination reactions accompanying nucleophilic substitution at the sp3-hybridized carbon atom.

Competency requirements:

· Know the factors that determine the nucleophilicity of reagents and the structure of the most important nucleophilic particles.

· Know the general laws of nucleophilic substitution reactions at a saturated carbon atom, the influence of static and dynamic factors on the reactivity of a substance in a nucleophilic substitution reaction.

· Know the mechanisms of mono- and bimolecular nucleophilic substitution, be able to evaluate the influence of steric factors, the influence of solvents, the influence of static and dynamic factors on the course of a reaction according to one of the mechanisms.

· Know the mechanisms of mono- and bimolecular elimination, the reasons for competition between nucleophilic substitution and elimination reactions.

· Know Zaitsev's rule and be able to determine the main product in the reactions of dehydration and dehydrohalogenation of unsymmetrical alcohols and haloalkanes.

Topic 5. Reactions of nucleophilic addition and substitution at the trigonal carbon atom

Nucleophilic addition reactions: heterolytic reactions involving the carbon-oxygen p-bond (aldehydes, ketones). The mechanism of reactions of interaction of carbonyl compounds with nucleophilic reagents (water, alcohols, thiols, amines). Influence of electronic and spatial factors, the role of acid catalysis, reversibility of nucleophilic addition reactions. Hemiacetals and acetals, their preparation and hydrolysis. Biological role of acetalization reactions. Aldol addition reactions. Basic catalysis. Structure of the enolate ion.

Nucleophilic substitution reactions in the series of carboxylic acids. Electronic and spatial structure of the carboxyl group. Nucleophilic substitution reactions at the sp2-hybridized carbon atom (carboxylic acids and their functional derivatives). Acylating agents (acid halides, anhydrides, carboxylic acids, esters, amides), comparative characteristics of their reactivity. Acylation reactions - the formation of anhydrides, esters, thioesters, amides - and their reverse hydrolysis reactions. Acetyl coenzyme A is a natural high-energy acylating agent. Biological role of acylation reactions. The concept of nucleophilic substitution at phosphorus atoms, phosphorylation reactions.

Oxidation and reduction reactions of organic compounds. Specificity of redox reactions of organic compounds. The concept of one-electron transfer, hydride ion transfer and the action of the NAD+ ↔ NADH system. Oxidation reactions of alcohols, phenols, sulfides, carbonyl compounds, amines, thiols. Reduction reactions of carbonyl compounds and disulfides. The role of redox reactions in life processes.

Competency requirements:

· Know the electronic and spatial structure of the carbonyl group, the influence of electronic and steric factors on the reactivity of the oxo group in aldehydes and ketones.

· Know the mechanism of reactions of nucleophilic addition of water, alcohols, amines, thiols to aldehydes and ketones, the role of a catalyst.

· Know the mechanism of aldol condensation reactions, the factors determining the participation of a compound in this reaction.

· Know the mechanism of reduction reactions of oxo compounds with metal hydrides.

· Know reaction centers, present in carboxylic acid molecules. Be able to conduct a comparative assessment of the strength of carboxylic acids depending on the structure of the radical.

· Know the electronic and spatial structure of the carboxyl group, be able to conduct a comparative assessment of the ability of the carbon atom of the oxo group in carboxylic acids and their functional derivatives (acid halides, anhydrides, esters, amides, salts) to undergo nucleophilic attack.

· Know the mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions using examples of acylation, esterification, hydrolysis of esters, anhydrides, acid halides, amides.

Topic 6. Lipids, classification, structure, properties

Lipids, saponifiable and unsaponifiable. Neutral lipids. Natural fats as a mixture of triacylglycerols. The main natural higher fatty acids that make up lipids: palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic. Arachidonic acid. Features of unsaturated fatty acids, w-nomenclature.

Peroxide oxidation of unsaturated fatty acid fragments in cell membranes. The role of membrane lipid peroxidation in the effect of low doses of radiation on the body. Antioxidant protection systems.

Phospholipids. Phosphatidic acids. Phosphatidylcolamines and phosphatidylserines (cephalins), phosphatidylcholines (lecithins) are structural components of cell membranes. Lipid bilayer. Sphingolipids, ceramides, sphingomyelins. Brain glycolipids (cerebrosides, gangliosides).

Competency requirements:

· Know the classification of lipids and their structure.

· Know the structure of the structural components of saponified lipids - alcohols and higher fatty acids.

· Know the mechanism of reactions of formation and hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.

· Know and be able to carry out qualitative reactions to unsaturated fatty acids and oils.

· Know the classification of unsaponifiable lipids, have an idea of ​​the principles of classification of terpenes and steroids, their biological role.

· Know the biological role of lipids, their main functions, have an idea of ​​the main stages of lipid peroxidation and the consequences of this process for the cell.

Section 2. Stereoisomerism of organic molecules. Poly- and heterofunctional compounds involved in vital processes

Topic 7. Stereoisomerism of organic molecules

Stereoisomerism in a series of compounds with a double bond (p-diastereomerism). Cis and trans isomerism of unsaturated compounds. E, Z – notation system for p-diastereomers. Comparative stability of p-diastereomers.

Chiral molecules. Asymmetric carbon atom as a center of chirality. Stereoisomerism of molecules with one center of chirality (enantiomerism). Optical activity. Fischer projection formulas. Glyceraldehyde as a configuration standard, absolute and relative configuration. D, L-system of stereochemical nomenclature. R, S-system of stereochemical nomenclature. Racemic mixtures and methods for their separation.

Stereoisomerism of molecules with two or more chiral centers. Enantiomers, diastereomers, mesoforms.

Competency requirements:

· Know the reasons for the occurrence of stereoisomerism in the series of alkenes and diene hydrocarbons.

· Be able to use the abbreviated structural formula of an unsaturated compound to determine the possibility of the existence of p-diastereomers, distinguish between cis - trans isomers, and evaluate their comparative stability.

· Know the symmetry elements of molecules, the necessary conditions for the appearance of chirality in an organic molecule.

· Know and be able to depict enantiomers using Fischer projection formulas, calculate the number of expected stereoisomers based on the number of chiral centers in a molecule, the principles of determining the absolute and relative configuration, the D-, L-system of stereochemical nomenclature.

· Know the methods for separating racemates, the basic principles of the R, S-system of stereochemical nomenclature.

Topic 8. Physiologically active poly- and heterofunctional compounds of the aliphatic, aromatic and heterocyclic series

Poly- and heterofunctionality as one of the characteristic features of organic compounds participating in vital processes and being the ancestors of the most important groups of medicines. Peculiarities in the mutual influence of functional groups depending on their relative location.

Polyhydric alcohols: ethylene glycol, glycerin. Esters of polyhydric alcohols with inorganic acids (nitroglycerin, glycerol phosphates). Diatomic phenols: hydroquinone. Oxidation of diatomic phenols. Hydroquinone-quinone system. Phenols as antioxidants (free radical scavengers). Tocopherols.

Dibasic carboxylic acids: oxalic, malonic, succinic, glutaric, fumaric. The conversion of succinic acid to fumaric acid is an example of a biologically important dehydrogenation reaction. Decarboxylation reactions, their biological role.

Amino alcohols: aminoethanol (colamine), choline, acetylcholine. The role of acetylcholine in the chemical transmission of nerve impulses at synapses. Aminophenols: dopamine, norepinephrine, adrenaline. The concept of the biological role of these compounds and their derivatives. Neurotoxic effects of 6-hydroxydopamine and amphetamines.

Hydroxy and amino acids. Cyclization reactions: the influence of various factors on the process of cycle formation (implementation of the corresponding conformations, size of the resulting cycle, entropy factor). Lactones. Lactams. Hydrolysis of lactones and lactams. Elimination reaction of b-hydroxy and amino acids.

Aldehyde and keto acids: pyruvic, acetoacetic, oxaloacetic, a-ketoglutaric. Acid properties and reactivity. Reactions of decarboxylation of b-keto acids and oxidative decarboxylation of a-keto acids. Acetoacetic ester, keto-enol tautomerism. Representatives of “ketone bodies” are b-hydroxybutyric, b-ketobutyric acids, acetone, their biological and diagnostic significance.

Heterofunctional derivatives of the benzene series as medicines. Salicylic acid and its derivatives (acetylsalicylic acid).

Para-aminobenzoic acid and its derivatives (anesthesin, novocaine). Biological role of p-aminobenzoic acid. Sulfanilic acid and its amide (streptocide).

Heterocycles with several heteroatoms. Pyrazole, imidazole, pyrimidine, purine. Pyrazolone-5 is the basis of non-narcotic analgesics. Barbituric acid and its derivatives. Hydroxypurines (hypoxanthine, xanthine, uric acid), their biological role. Heterocycles with one heteroatom. Pyrrole, indole, pyridine. Biologically important pyridine derivatives are nicotinamide, pyridoxal, and isonicotinic acid derivatives. Nicotinamide is a structural component of the coenzyme NAD+, which determines its participation in OVR.

Competency requirements:

· Be able to classify heterofunctional compounds by composition and by their relative arrangement.

· Know specific reactions amino and hydroxy acids with a, b, g - arrangement of functional groups.

· Know the reactions leading to the formation of biologically active compounds: choline, acetylcholine, adrenaline.

· Know the role of keto-enol tautomerism in the manifestation of the biological activity of keto acids (pyruvic acid, oxaloacetic acid, acetoacetic acid) and heterocyclic compounds (pyrazole, barbituric acid, purine).

· Know the methods of redox transformations of organic compounds, the biological role of redox reactions in the manifestation of the biological activity of diatomic phenols, nicotinamide, and the formation of ketone bodies.

Subject9 . Carbohydrates, classification, structure, properties, biological role

Carbohydrates, their classification in relation to hydrolysis. Classification of monosaccharides. Aldoses, ketoses: trioses, tetroses, pentoses, hexoses. Stereoisomerism of monosaccharides. D- and L-series of stereochemical nomenclature. Open and cyclic forms. Fisher's formulas and Haworth's formulas. Furanoses and pyranoses, a- and b-anomers. Cyclo-oxo-tautomerism. Conformations of pyranose forms of monosaccharides. The structure of the most important representatives of pentoses (ribose, xylose); hexoses (glucose, mannose, galactose, fructose); deoxysugars (2-deoxyribose); amino sugars (glucosamine, mannosamine, galactosamine).

Chemical properties of monosaccharides. Nucleophilic substitution reactions involving an anomeric center. O - and N-glycosides. Hydrolysis of glycosides. Phosphates of monosaccharides. Oxidation and reduction of monosaccharides. Reducing properties of aldoses. Glyconic, glycaric, glycuronic acids.

Oligosaccharides. Disaccharides: maltose, cellobiose, lactose, sucrose. Structure, cyclo-oxo-tautomerism. Hydrolysis.

Polysaccharides. General characteristics and classification of polysaccharides. Homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Homopolysaccharides: starch, glycogen, dextrans, cellulose. Primary structure, hydrolysis. The concept of secondary structure (starch, cellulose).

Competency requirements:

· Know the classification of monosaccharides (according to the number of carbon atoms, the composition of functional groups), the structure of open and cyclic forms (furanose, pyranose) of the most important monosaccharides, their ratio of D - and L - series of stereochemical nomenclature, be able to determine the number of possible diastereomers, classify stereoisomers as diastereomers , epimers, anomers.

· Know the mechanism of cyclization reactions of monosaccharides, the reasons for the mutarotation of monosaccharide solutions.

· Know the chemical properties of monosaccharides: redox reactions, reactions of formation and hydrolysis of O - and N-glycosides, esterification reactions, phosphorylation.

· Be able to carry out high-quality reactions on the diol fragment and the presence of reducing properties of monosaccharides.

· Know the classification of disaccharides and their structure, the configuration of the anomeric carbon atom forming a glycosidic bond, tautomeric transformations of disaccharides, their chemical properties, biological role.

· Know the classification of polysaccharides (in relation to hydrolysis, according to monosaccharide composition), the structure of the most important representatives of homopolysaccharides, the configuration of the anomeric carbon atom forming a glycosidic bond, their physical and chemical properties, and biological role. Have an idea of ​​the biological role of heteropolysaccharides.

Topic 10.a-Amino acids, peptides, proteins. Structure, properties, biological role

Structure, nomenclature, classification of a-amino acids that make up proteins and peptides. Stereoisomerism of a-amino acids.

Biosynthetic pathways for the formation of a-amino acids from oxoacids: reductive amination reactions and transamination reactions. Essential amino acids.

Chemical properties of a-amino acids as heterofunctional compounds. Acid-base properties of a-amino acids. Isoelectric point, methods for separating a-amino acids. Formation of intracomplex salts. Reactions of esterification, acylation, alkylation. Interaction with nitrous acid and formaldehyde, the significance of these reactions for the analysis of amino acids.

g-Aminobutyric acid is an inhibitory neurotransmitter of the central nervous system. Antidepressant effect of L-tryptophan, serotonin - as a sleep neurotransmitter. Mediator properties of glycine, histamine, aspartic and glutamic acids.

Biologically important reactions a-amino acids. Deamination and hydroxylation reactions. Decarboxylation of a-amino acids is the path to the formation of biogenic amines and bioregulators (colamine, histamine, tryptamine, serotonin.) Peptides. Electronic structure of the peptide bond. Acid and alkaline hydrolysis of peptides. Establishment of amino acid composition using modern physicochemical methods (Sanger and Edman methods). Concept of neuropeptides.

Primary structure of proteins. Partial and complete hydrolysis. The concept of secondary, tertiary and quaternary structures.

Competency requirements:

· Know the structure, stereochemical classification of a-amino acids, belonging to the D- and L-stereochemical series of natural amino acids, essential amino acids.

· Know the ways of synthesis of a-amino acids in vivo and in vitro, know the acid-base properties and methods of converting a-amino acids into an isoelectric state.

· Know the chemical properties of a-amino acids (reactions on amino and carboxyl groups), be able to carry out qualitative reactions (xantoprotein, with Cu(OH)2, ninhydrin).

· Know the electronic structure of the peptide bond, the primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins and peptides, know how to determine the amino acid composition and amino acid sequence (Sanger method, Edman method), be able to carry out the biuret reaction for peptides and proteins.

· Know the principle of the method of peptide synthesis using protection and activation of functional groups.

Topic 11. Nucleotides and nucleic acids

Nucleic bases that make up nucleic acids. Pyrimidine (uracil, thymine, cytosine) and purine (adenine, guanine) bases, their aromaticity, tautomeric transformations.

Nucleosides, reactions of their formation. The nature of the connection between the nucleic base and the carbohydrate residue; configuration of the glycosidic center. Hydrolysis of nucleosides.

Nucleotides. The structure of mononucleotides that form nucleic acids. Nomenclature. Hydrolysis of nucleotides.

Primary structure of nucleic acids. Phosphodiester bond. Ribonucleic and deoxyribonucleic acids. Nucleotide composition of RNA and DNA. Hydrolysis of nucleic acids.

The concept of the secondary structure of DNA. The role of hydrogen bonds in the formation of secondary structure. Complementarity of nucleic bases.

Medicines based on modified nucleic bases (5-fluorouracil, 6-mercaptopurine). The principle of chemical similarity. Changes in the structure of nucleic acids under the influence of chemicals and radiation. Mutagenic effect of nitrous acid.

Nucleoside polyphosphates (ADP, ATP), features of their structure that allow them to perform the functions of high-energy compounds and intracellular bioregulators. The structure of cAMP, the intracellular “messenger” of hormones.

Competency requirements:

· Know the structure of pyrimidine and purine nitrogenous bases, their tautomeric transformations.

· Know the mechanism of reactions for the formation of N-glycosides (nucleosides) and their hydrolysis, the nomenclature of nucleosides.

· Know the fundamental similarities and differences between natural and synthetic antibiotic nucleosides in comparison with the nucleosides that make up DNA and RNA.

· Know the reactions of nucleotide formation, the structure of mononucleotides that make up nucleic acids, their nomenclature.

· Know the structure of cyclo- and polyphosphates of nucleosides, their biological role.

· Know the nucleotide composition of DNA and RNA, the role of the phosphodiester bond in creating the primary structure of nucleic acids.

· Know the role of hydrogen bonds in the formation of the secondary structure of DNA, the complementarity of nitrogenous bases, the role of complementary interactions in the implementation of the biological function of DNA.

· Know the factors that cause mutations and the principle of their action.

Information part

Bibliography

Main:

1. Romanovsky, bioorganic chemistry: a textbook in 2 parts /. - Minsk: BSMU, 20с.

2. Romanovsky, to the workshop on bioorganic chemistry: tutorial/ edited by. – Minsk: BSMU, 1999. – 132 p.

3. Tyukavkina, N. A., Bioorganic chemistry: textbook / , . – Moscow: Medicine, 1991. – 528 p.

Additional:

4. Ovchinnikov, chemistry: monograph /.

– Moscow: Education, 1987. – 815 p.

5. Potapov: textbook /. - Moscow:

Chemistry, 1988. – 464 p.

6. Riles, A. Fundamentals of organic chemistry: a textbook / A. Rice, K. Smith,

R. Ward. – Moscow: Mir, 1989. – 352 p.

7. Taylor, G. Fundamentals of organic chemistry: textbook / G. Taylor. -

Moscow: Mirs.

8. Terney, A. Modern organic chemistry: a textbook in 2 volumes /

A. Terney. – Moscow: Mir, 1981. – 1310 p.

9. Tyukavkina, for laboratory classes on bioorganic

chemistry: textbook / [etc.]; edited by N.A.

Tyukavkina. – Moscow: Medicine, 1985. – 256 p.

10. Tyukavkina, N. A., Bioorganic chemistry: A textbook for students

medical institutes / , . - Moscow.

Modern bioorganic chemistry is a branched field of knowledge, the foundation of many biomedical disciplines and, first of all, biochemistry, molecular biology, genomics, proteomics and

bioinformatics, immunology, pharmacology.

The program is based on systems approach to build the entire course on a single theoretical basis

basis based on ideas about the electronic and spatial structure of organic

compounds and mechanisms of their chemical transformations. The material is presented in the form of 5 sections, the most important of which are: “Theoretical foundations of the structure of organic compounds and factors determining their reactivity”, “Biologically important classes organic compounds" and "Biopolymers and their structural components. Lipids"

The program is aimed at specialized teaching of bioorganic chemistry in medical school, in connection with which the discipline is called “bioorganic chemistry in medicine.” The profiling of teaching bioorganic chemistry is served by consideration of the historical relationship between the development of medicine and chemistry, including organic, increased attention to classes of biologically important organic compounds (heterofunctional compounds, heterocycles, carbohydrates, amino acids and proteins, nucleic acids, lipids) as well as biologically important reactions of these classes of compounds ). A separate section of the program is devoted to consideration of the pharmacological properties of certain classes of organic compounds and the chemical nature of certain classes of drugs.

Considering the important role of “oxidative stress diseases” in the morbidity structure modern man The program pays special attention to free radical oxidation reactions, detection of end products of free radical oxidation of lipids in laboratory diagnostics, natural antioxidants and antioxidant drugs. The program includes consideration environmental problems, namely the nature of xenobiotics and their mechanisms toxic effect on living organisms.

1. The purpose and objectives of training.

1.1. The purpose of teaching the subject bioorganic chemistry in medicine is to develop an understanding of the role of bioorganic chemistry as the foundation of modern biology, a theoretical basis for explaining the biological effects of bioorganic compounds, the mechanisms of action of drugs and the creation of new drugs. To develop knowledge of the relationship between the structure, chemical properties and biological activity of the most important classes of bioorganic compounds, to teach how to apply the acquired knowledge when studying subsequent disciplines and in professional activities.

1.2. Objectives of teaching bioorganic chemistry:

1. Formation of knowledge of the structure, properties and reaction mechanisms of the most important classes of bioorganic compounds, which determine their medical and biological significance.

2. Formation of ideas about the electronic and spatial structure of organic compounds as a basis for explaining their chemical properties and biological activity.

3. Formation of skills and practical skills:

classify bioorganic compounds according to the structure of the carbon skeleton and functional groups;

use the rules of chemical nomenclature to indicate the names of metabolites, drugs, xenobiotics;

identify reaction centers in molecules;

be able to carry out qualitative reactions that have clinical and laboratory significance.

2. The place of discipline in the structure of OOP:

The discipline "Bioorganic chemistry" is an integral part of the discipline "Chemistry", which belongs to the mathematical, natural science cycle of disciplines.

The basic knowledge necessary to study the discipline is formed in the cycle of mathematical, natural science disciplines: physics, mathematics; medical informatics; chemistry; biology; anatomy, histology, embryology, cytology; normal physiology; microbiology, virology.

It is a prerequisite for studying the disciplines:

biochemistry;

pharmacology;

microbiology, virology;

immunology;

professional disciplines.

Disciplines studied in parallel, providing interdisciplinary connections within the framework of the basic part curriculum:

chemistry, physics, biology, 3. List of disciplines and topics that students need to master to study bioorganic chemistry.

General chemistry. The structure of the atom, the nature of a chemical bond, types of bonds, classes of chemical substances, types of reactions, catalysis, reaction of the medium in aqueous solutions.

Organic chemistry. Classes of organic substances, nomenclature of organic compounds, configuration of the carbon atom, polarization of atomic orbitals, sigma and pi bonds. Genetic relationship of classes of organic compounds. Reactivity of different classes of organic compounds.

Physics. The structure of the atom. Optics - ultraviolet, visible and infrared regions of the spectrum.

Interaction of light with matter - transmission, absorption, reflection, scattering. Polarized light.

Biology. Genetic code. Chemical basis of heredity and variability.

Latin language. Mastering terminology.

Foreign language. Ability to work with foreign literature.

4. Sections of the discipline and interdisciplinary connections with the provided (subsequent) disciplines No. sections of this discipline necessary for studying the provided No. Name of the provided sub-disciplines (subsequent) disciplines (subsequent) disciplines 1 2 3 4 5 1 Chemistry + + + + + Biology + - - + + Biochemistry + + + + + + 4 Microbiology, virology + + - + + + 5 Immunology + - - - + Pharmacology + + - + + + 7 Hygiene + - + + + Professional disciplines + - - + + + 5. Requirements for the level of mastery of the discipline content Achieving the learning goal The discipline “Bioorganic Chemistry” involves the implementation of a number of targeted problem tasks, as a result of which students must develop certain competencies, knowledge, skills, and must acquire certain practical skills.

5.1. The student must have:

5.1.1. General cultural competencies:

the ability and willingness to analyze socially significant problems and processes, to use in practice the methods of the humanities, natural sciences, biomedical and clinical sciences in various types of professional and social activities (OK-1);

5.1.2. Professional competencies(PC):

ability and willingness to apply basic methods, methods and means of obtaining, storing, processing scientific and professional information; receive information from various sources, including using modern computer tools, network technologies, databases and the ability and willingness to work with scientific literature, analyze information, conduct searches, turn what you read into a means for solving professional problems (highlight the main provisions, consequences from them and proposals);

ability and readiness to participate in setting scientific problems and their experimental implementation (PC-2, PC-3, PC-5, PC-7).

5.2. The student must know:

Principles of classification, nomenclature and isomerism of organic compounds.

Fundamentals of theoretical organic chemistry, which are the basis for studying the structure and reactivity of organic compounds.

Spatial and electronic structure of organic molecules and chemical transformations of substances that are participants in life processes, in direct connection with their biological structure, chemical properties and biological role of the main classes of biologically important organic compounds.

5.3. The student must be able to:

Classify organic compounds according to the structure of the carbon skeleton and the nature of functional groups.

Compose formulas by name and name typical representatives of biologically important substances and drugs by structural formula.

Identify functional groups, acidic and basic centers, conjugated and aromatic fragments in molecules to determine the chemical behavior of organic compounds.

Predict the direction and result of chemical transformations of organic compounds.

5.4. The student must have:

Skills independent work with educational, scientific and reference literature; conduct a search and draw general conclusions.

Have skills in handling chemical glassware.

Have the skills to work safely in a chemical laboratory and the ability to handle caustic, toxic, highly volatile organic compounds, work with burners, alcohol lamps and electric heating devices.

5.5. Forms of knowledge control 5.5.1. Current control:

Diagnostic control of material assimilation. It is carried out periodically mainly to control knowledge of formulaic material.

Educational computer control in every lesson.

Test tasks, requiring the ability to analyze and generalize (see Appendix).

Scheduled colloquiums upon completion of the study of large sections of the program (see Appendix).

5.5.2 Final control:

Test (carried out in two stages):

C.2 - Mathematical, natural science and medical-biological General labor intensity:

2 Classification, nomenclature and Classification and classification characteristics of organic modern physical compounds: the structure of the carbon skeleton and the nature of the functional group.

chemical methods Functional groups, organic radicals. Biologically important studies of bioorganic classes of organic compounds: alcohols, phenols, thiols, ethers, sulfides, aldehyde compounds, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivatives, sulfonic acids.

IUPAC nomenclature. Varieties of international nomenclature: substitutive and radical-functional nomenclature. The value of knowledge 3 Theoretical foundations of the structure of organic compounds and the Theory of the structure of organic compounds by A.M. Butlerov. The main factors determining their positions. Structural formulas. The nature of the carbon atom by position and reactivity. chains. Isomerism as a specific phenomenon of organic chemistry. Types of Stereoisomerism.

Chirality of molecules of organic compounds as a cause of optical isomerism. Stereoisomerism of molecules with one center of chirality (enantiomerism). Optical activity. Glyceraldehyde as a configuration standard. Fischer projection formulas. D and L System of Stereochemical Nomenclature. Ideas about R, S-nomenclature.

Stereoisomerism of molecules with two or more chirality centers: enantiomerism and diastereomerism.

Stereoisomerism in a series of compounds with a double bond (Pydiastereomerism). Cis and trans isomers. Stereoisomerism and biological activity of organic compounds.

Mutual influence of atoms: causes of occurrence, types and methods of its transmission in molecules of organic compounds.

Pairing. Pairing in open circuits (Pi-Pi). Conjugated bonds. Diene structures in biologically important compounds: 1,3-dienes (butadiene), polyenes, alpha, beta-unsaturated carbonyl compounds, carboxyl group. Coupling as a system stabilization factor. Conjugation energy. Conjugation in arenes (Pi-Pi) and heterocycles (p-Pi).

Aromaticity. Aromaticity criteria. Aromaticity of benzenoid (benzene, naphthalene, anthracene, phenanthrene) and heterocyclic (furan, thiophene, pyrrole, imidazole, pyridine, pyrimidine, purine) compounds. Widespread occurrence of conjugated structures in biologically important molecules (porphin, heme, etc.).

Bond polarization and electronic effects (inductive and mesomeric) as the cause of the uneven distribution of electron density in the molecule. Substituents are electron donors and electron acceptors.

The most important substituents and their electronic effects. Electronic effects of substituents and reactivity of molecules. Orientation rule in the benzene ring, substituents of the first and second kind.

Acidity and basicity of organic compounds.

Acidity and basicity of neutral molecules of organic compounds with hydrogen-containing functional groups (amines, alcohols, thiols, phenols, carboxylic acids). Acids and bases according to Bronsted-Lowry and Lewis. Conjugate pairs of acids and bases. Anion acidity and stability. Quantitative assessment of the acidity of organic compounds based on Ka and pKa values.

Acidity of various classes of organic compounds. Factors that determine the acidity of organic compounds: electronegativity of the nonmetal atom (C-H, N-H, and O-H acids); polarizability of a nonmetal atom (alcohols and thiols, thiol poisons); nature of the radical (alcohols, phenols, carboxylic acids).

Basicity of organic compounds. n-bases (heterocycles) and pi-bases (alkenes, alkanedienes, arenes). Factors that determine the basicity of organic compounds: electronegativity of the heteroatom (O- and N bases); polarizability of a nonmetal atom (O- and S-base); nature of the radical (aliphatic and aromatic amines).

The importance of the acid-base properties of neutral organic molecules for their reactivity and biological activity.

Hydrogen bonding as a specific manifestation of acid-base properties. General patterns of reactivity of organic compounds as the chemical basis of their biological functioning.

Reaction mechanisms of organic compounds.

Classification of reactions of organic compounds according to the result of substitution, addition, elimination, rearrangement, redox and according to the mechanism - radical, ionic (electrophilic, nucleophilic). Types of covalent bond cleavage in organic compounds and the resulting particles: homolytic cleavage (free radicals) and heterolytic cleavage (carbocations and carbonanions).

Electronic and spatial structure of these particles and factors determining their relative stability.

Homolytic radical substitution reactions in alkanes involving C-H connections sp 3-hybridized carbon atom. Free radical oxidation reactions in a living cell. Reactive (radical) forms of oxygen. Antioxidants. Biological significance.

Electrophilic addition reactions (Ae): heterolytic reactions involving the Pi bond. Mechanism of ethylene halogenation and hydration reactions. Acid catalysis. Influence of static and dynamic factors on the regioselectivity of reactions. Peculiarities of reactions of addition of hydrogen-containing substances to the Pi bond in unsymmetrical alkenes. Markovnikov's rule. Features of electrophilic addition to conjugated systems.

Electrophilic substitution reactions (Se): heterolytic reactions involving an aromatic system. Mechanism of electrophilic substitution reactions in arenes. Sigma complexes. Reactions of alkylation, acylation, nitration, sulfonation, halogenation of arenes. Orientation rule.

Substitutes of the 1st and 2nd kind. Features of electrophilic substitution reactions in heterocycles. Orienting influence of heteroatoms.

Reactions of nucleophilic substitution (Sn) at sp3-hybridized carbon atom: heterolytic reactions caused by polarization of the carbon-heteroatom sigma bond (halogen derivatives, alcohols). The influence of electronic and spatial factors on the reactivity of compounds in nucleophilic substitution reactions.

Hydrolysis reaction of halogen derivatives. Alkylation reactions of alcohols, phenols, thiols, sulfides, ammonia and amines. The role of acid catalysis in nucleophilic substitution of the hydroxyl group.

Deamination of compounds with a primary amino group. Biological role of alkylation reactions.

Elimination reactions (dehydrohalogenation, dehydration).

Increased CH acidity as a cause of elimination reactions accompanying nucleophilic substitution at the sp3-hybridized carbon atom.

Nucleophilic addition reactions (An): heterolytic reactions involving the pi carbon-oxygen bond (aldehydes, ketones). Classes of carbonyl compounds. Representatives. Preparation of aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids. Structure and reactivity of the carbonyl group. Influence of electronic and spatial factors. Mechanism of An reactions: role of protonation in increasing carbonyl reactivity. Biologically important reactions of aldehydes and ketones: hydrogenation, oxidation-reduction of aldehydes (dismutation reaction), oxidation of aldehydes, formation of cyanohydrins, hydration, formation of hemiacetals, imines. Aldol addition reactions. Biological significance.

Nucleophilic substitution reactions at the sp2-hybridized carbon atom (carboxylic acids and their functional derivatives).

The mechanism of nucleophilic substitution reactions (Sn) at the sp2 hybridized carbon atom. Acylation reactions - the formation of anhydrides, esters, thioesters, amides - and their reverse hydrolysis reactions. Biological role of acylation reactions. Acidic properties of carboxylic acids according to the O-H group.

Oxidation and reduction reactions of organic compounds.

Redox reactions, electronic mechanism.

Oxidation states of carbon atoms in organic compounds. Oxidation of primary, secondary and tertiary carbon atoms. Oxidability of various classes of organic compounds. Ways of oxygen utilization in the cell.

Energetic oxidation. Oxidase reactions. Oxidation of organic substances is the main source of energy for chemotrophs. Plastic oxidation.

4 Biologically important classes of organic compounds Polyhydric alcohols: ethylene glycol, glycerol, inositol. Education Hydroxy acids: classification, nomenclature, representatives of lactic, betahydroxybutyric, gammahydroxybutyric, malic, tartaric, citric, reductive amination, transamination and decarboxylation.

Amino acids: classification, representatives of beta and gamma isomers: aminopropane, gamma-aminobutyric, epsilonaminocaproic. Reaction Salicylic acid and its derivatives (acetylsalicylic acid, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory and anti-rheumatic agent, enteroseptol and 5-NOK. The isoquinoline core as the basis of opium alkaloids, antispasmodics (papaverine) and analgesics (morphine). Acridine derivatives are disinfectants.

xanthine derivatives - caffeine, theobromine and theophylline, indole derivatives reserpine, strychnine, pilocarpine, quinoline derivatives - quinine, isoquinoline morphine and papaverine.

cephalosproins are derivatives of cephalosporanic acid, tetracyclines are derivatives of naphthacene, streptomycins are amyloglycosides. Semi-synthetic 5 Biopolymers and their structural components. Lipids. Definition. Classification. Functions.

Cyclo-oxotautomerism. Mutarotation. Derivatives of monosaccharides deoxysugar (deoxyribose) and amino sugar (glucosamine, galactosamine).

Oligosaccharides. Disaccharides: maltose, lactose, sucrose. Structure. Oglycosidic bond. Restorative properties. Hydrolysis. Biological (pathway of amino acid breakdown); radical reactions - hydroxylation (formation of oxy-derivatives of amino acids). Peptide bond formation.

Peptides. Definition. Structure of the peptide group. Functions.

Biologically active peptides: glutathione, oxytocin, vasopressin, glucagon, neuropeptides, kinin peptides, immunoactive peptides (thymosin), inflammatory peptides (difexin). The concept of cytokines. Antibiotic peptides (gramicidin, actinomycin D, cyclosporine A). Peptide toxins. Relationship between the biological effects of peptides and certain amino acid residues.

Squirrels. Definition. Functions. Levels of protein structure. The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids. Research methods. Partial and complete hydrolysis of proteins. The importance of determining the primary structure of proteins.

Directed site-specific mutagenesis as a method for studying the relationship between the functional activity of proteins and the primary structure. Congenital disorders of the primary structure of proteins - point mutations. Secondary structure and its types (alpha helix, beta structure). Tertiary structure.

Denaturation. The concept of active centers. Quaternary structure of oligomeric proteins. Cooperative properties. Simple and complex proteins: glycoproteins, lipoproteins, nucleoproteins, phosphoproteins, metalloproteins, chromoproteins.

Nitrogen bases, nucleosides, nucleotides and nucleic acids.

Definition of the concepts nitrogenous base, nucleoside, nucleotide and nucleic acid. Purines (adenine and guanine) and pyrimidines (uracil, thymine, cytosine) nitrogenous bases. Aromatic properties. Resistance to oxidative degradation as a basis for fulfilling a biological role.

Lactim - lactam tautomerism. Minor nitrogenous bases (hypoxanthine, 3-N-methyluracil, etc.). Derivatives of nitrogenous bases - antimetabolites (5-fluorouracil, 6-mercaptopurine).

Nucleosides. Definition. Formation of a glycosidic bond between a nitrogenous base and a pentose. Hydrolysis of nucleosides. Nucleosides antimetabolites (adenine arabinoside).

Nucleotides. Definition. Structure. Formation of a phosphoester bond during the esterification of the C5 hydroxyl of pentose with phosphoric acid. Hydrolysis of nucleotides. Macroerg nucleotides (nucleoside polyphosphates - ADP, ATP, etc.). Nucleotides-coenzymes (NAD+, FAD), structure, role of vitamins B5 and B2.

Nucleic acids - RNA and DNA. Definition. Nucleotide composition of RNA and DNA. Primary structure. Phosphodiester bond. Hydrolysis of nucleic acids. Definition of the concepts triplet (codon), gene (cistron), genetic code (genome). International Human Genome Project.

Secondary structure of DNA. The role of hydrogen bonds in the formation of secondary structure. Complementary pairs of nitrogenous bases. Tertiary structure of DNA. Changes in the structure of nucleic acids under the influence of chemicals. The concept of mutagenic substances.

Lipids. Definition, classification. Saponifiable and unsaponifiable lipids.

Natural higher fatty acids are components of lipids. The most important representatives: palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic, eicosapentaenoic, docosohexaenoic (vitamin F).

Neutral lipids. Acylglycerols - natural fats, oils, waxes.

Artificial edible hydrofats. Biological role of acylglycerols.

Phospholipids. Phosphatidic acids. Phosphatidylcholines, phosphatidiethanolamines and phosphatidylserines. Structure. Participation in the formation of biological membranes. Peroxidation lipids in cell membranes.

Sphingolipids. Sphingosine and sphingomyelins. Glycolipids (cerebrosides, sulfatides and gangliosides).

Unsaponifiable lipids. Terpenes. Mono- and bicyclic terpenes 6 Pharmacological properties Pharmacological properties of some classes of mono-poly and some classes of heterofunctional compounds (hydrogen halides, alcohols, oxy- and organic compounds. oxoacids, benzene derivatives, heterocycles, alkaloids.). Chemical The chemical nature of some of the anti-inflammatory drugs, analgesics, antiseptics and classes of drugs. antibiotics.

6.3. Sections of disciplines and types of classes 1. Introduction to the subject. Classification, nomenclature and research of bioorganic compounds 2. Theoretical foundations of the structure of organic reactivity.

3. Biologically important classes of organic 5 Pharmacological properties of some classes of organic compounds. The chemical nature of some classes of drugs L-lectures; PZ – practical exercises; LR – laboratory work; C – seminars; SRS – independent work of students;

6.4 Thematic plan of lectures on discipline 1 1 Introduction to the subject. History of the development of bioorganic chemistry, significance for 3 2 Theory of the structure of organic compounds by A.M. Butlerov. Isomerism as 4 2 Mutual influence of atoms: causes of occurrence, types and methods of its transmission in 7 1.2 Test work in the sections “Classification, nomenclature and modern physicochemical methods for studying bioorganic compounds” and “Theoretical foundations of the structure of organic compounds and factors determining their reaction 15 5 Pharmacological properties of some classes of organic compounds. Chemical 19 4 14 Detection of insoluble calcium salts of higher carbonates 1 1 Introduction to the subject. Classification and Working with recommended literature.

nomenclature of bioorganic compounds. Completing a written assignment for 3 2 Mutual influence of atoms in molecules Work with recommended literature.

4 2 Acidity and basicity of organic materials Work with recommended literature.

5 2 Mechanisms of organic reactions Work with recommended literature.

6 2 Oxidation and reduction of organic materials Work with recommended literature.

7 1.2 Test work by section Work with recommended literature. * modern physical and chemical methods on the proposed topics, conducting research on bioorganic compounds”, information search in various organic compounds and factors, INTERNET and work with English-language databases 8 3 Heterofunctional bioorganic Work with recommended literature.

9 3 Biologically important heterocycles. Work with recommended literature.

10 3 Vitamins (laboratory work). Work with recommended literature.

12 4 Alpha amino acids, peptides and proteins. Work with recommended literature.

13 4 Nitrogen bases, nucleosides, Work with recommended literature.

nucleotides and nucleic acids. Completing a written writing task 15 5 Pharmacological properties of some Work with recommended literature.

classes of organic compounds. Completing the Writing Assignment Chemical Nature of Some Classes chemical formulas some medicinal * - tasks of the student's choice.

organic compounds.

organic molecules.

organic molecules.

organic compounds.

organic compounds.

connections. Stereoisomerism.

certain classes of drugs.

During the semester, a student can score a maximum of 65 points in practical classes.

In one practical lesson, a student can score a maximum of 4.3 points. This amount consists of points gained for attending classes (0.6 points), completing assignments for extracurricular independent work (1.0 points), laboratory work(0.4 points) and points awarded for the oral answer and test task (from 1.3 to 2.3 points). Points for attending classes, completing assignments for extracurricular independent work and laboratory work are awarded on a “yes” - “no” basis. Points for the oral answer and the test task are awarded differentiated from 1.3 to 2.3 points in the case of positive answers: 0-1.29 points correspond to the rating “unsatisfactory”, 1.3-1.59 - “satisfactory”, 1.6 -1.99 – “good”, 2.0-2.3 – “excellent”. On test work a student can score a maximum of 5.0 points: attendance at a class is 0.6 points and an oral response is 2.0-4.4 points.

To be admitted to the test, a student must score at least 45 points, while the student’s current performance is assessed as follows: 65-75 points – “excellent”, 54-64 points – “good”, 45-53 points – “satisfactory”, less than 45 points – unsatisfactory. If a student scores from 65 to 75 points (“excellent” result), then he is exempt from the test and receives a “pass” mark in the grade book automatically, gaining 25 points for the test.

On the test, a student can score a maximum of 25 points: 0-15.9 points correspond to the grade “unsatisfactory”, 16-17.5 – “satisfactory”, 17.6-21.2 – “good”, 21.3-25 – “ Great".

Distribution of bonus points (up to 10 points per semester in total) 1. Lecture attendance – 0.4 points (100% lecture attendance – 6.4 points per semester);

2. Participation in UIRS up to 3 points, including:

writing an abstract on the proposed topic – 0.3 points;

preparation of a report and multimedia presentation for the final educational and theoretical conference 3. Participation in research work – up to 5 points, including:

attending a meeting of the student scientific circle at the department - 0.3 points;

preparing a report for a meeting of the student scientific circle – 0.5 points;

giving a report at a university student scientific conference – 1 point;

presentation at a regional, all-Russian and international student scientific conference – 3 points;

publication in collections of student scientific conferences – 2 points;

publication in peer-reviewed scientific journal- 5 points;

4. Participation in educational work at the department up to 3 points, including:

participation in the organization of educational activities carried out by the department during extracurricular hours - 2 points for one event;

attending educational activities held by the department during extracurricular hours – 1 point for one event;

Distribution of penalty points (up to 10 points per semester in total) 1. Absence from lecture due to improper good reason- 0.66-0.67 points (0% attendance at lectures - 10 points for If a student missed a class for a good reason, he has the right to work the class to improve his current rating.

If the absence is unexcused, the student must complete the class and receive a grade with a reduction factor of 0.8.

If a student is exempt from physical presence in classes (by order of the academy), then he is awarded maximum points if he completes the assignment for extracurricular independent work.

6. Educational and methodological Information Support disciplines 1. N.A. Tyukavkina, Yu.I. Baukov, S.E. Zurabyan. Bioorganic chemistry. M.:DROFA, 2009.

2. Tyukavkina N.A., Baukov Yu.I. Bioorganic chemistry. M.:DROFA, 2005.

1. Ovchinikov Yu.A. Bioorganic chemistry. M.: Education, 1987.

2. Riles A., Smith K., Ward R. Fundamentals of organic chemistry. M.: Mir, 1983.

3. Shcherbak I.G. Biological chemistry. Textbook for medical schools. S.-P. St. Petersburg State Medical University publishing house, 2005.

4. Berezov T.T., Korovkin B.F. Biological chemistry. M.: Medicine, 2004.

5. Berezov T.T., Korovkin B.F. Biological chemistry. M.: Medicine, Postupaev V.V., Ryabtseva E.G. Biochemical organization of cell membranes (textbook for students of pharmaceutical faculties of medical universities). Khabarovsk, Far Eastern State Medical University. 2001

7. Soros educational magazine, 1996-2001.

8. Guide to laboratory classes in bioorganic chemistry. Edited by N.A. Tyukavkina, M.:

Medicine, 7.3 Educational materials, prepared by the department 1. Methodological development of practical classes in bioorganic chemistry for students.

2. Methodological developments for independent extracurricular work of students.

3. Borodin E.A., Borodina G.P. Biochemical diagnosis (physiological role and diagnostic value of biochemical parameters of blood and urine). Textbook 4th edition. Blagoveshchensk, 2010.

4. Borodina G.P., Borodin E.A. Biochemical diagnosis (physiological role and diagnostic value of biochemical parameters of blood and urine). Electronic textbook. Blagoveshchensk, 2007.

5. Assignments for computer testing of students’ knowledge in bioorganic chemistry (Compiled by Borodin E.A., Doroshenko G.K., Egorshina E.V.) Blagoveshchensk, 2003.

6. Test assignments in bioorganic chemistry for the exam in bioorganic chemistry for students of the medical faculty of medical universities. Toolkit. (Compiled by Borodin E.A., Doroshenko G.K.). Blagoveshchensk, 2002.

7. Test assignments in bioorganic chemistry for practical classes in bioorganic chemistry for students of the Faculty of Medicine. Toolkit. (Compiled by Borodin E.A., Doroshenko G.K.). Blagoveshchensk, 2002.

8. Vitamins. Toolkit. (Compiled by Egorshina E.V.). Blagoveshchensk, 2001.

8.5 Ensuring discipline with equipment and educational materials 1 Chemical glassware:

Glassware:

1.1 chemical test tubes 5000 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.2 centrifuge tubes 2000 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.3 glass rods 100 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.4. flasks of various volumes (for 200 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.5 large volume flasks - 0.5-2.0 30 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.6 chemical beakers of various 120 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.7 large chemical beakers 50 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, preparation of workers 1.8 flasks of various sizes 2000 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.9 filter funnels 200 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS , 1.10 glassware Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, CIRS, chromatography, etc.).

1.11 alcohol lamps 30 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, Porcelain dishes 1.12 glasses different volumes (0.2- 30 Preparation of reagents for practical classes 1.13 mortars and pestles Preparation of reagents for practical classes, chemical experiments and 1.15 cups for evaporation 20 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, Measuring glassware:

1.16 volumetric flasks of various 100 Preparation of reagents for practical classes, Chemical experiments 1.17 graduated cylinders of various 40 Preparation of reagents for practical classes, Chemical experiments 1.18 beakers of various volumes 30 Preparation of reagents for practical classes, Chemical experiments 1.19 measuring pipettes for 2000 Chemical experiments and analyzes for practical classes, UIRS, micropipettes) 1.20 mechanical automatic 15 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.21 mechanical automatic 2 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, variable volume dispensers NIRS 1.22 electronic automatic 1 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 1.23 AC microsyringes 5 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 2 Technical equipment:

2.1 racks for test tubes 100 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 2.2 racks for pipettes 15 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, 2.3 metal racks 15 Chemical experiments and analyzes in practical classes, UIRS, Heating devices:

2.4 drying cabinets 3 Drying chemical glassware, holding chemicals 2.5 air thermostats 2 Thermostating of the incubation mixture when determining 2.6 water thermostats 2 Thermostating of the incubation mixture when determining 2.7 electric stoves 3 Preparation of reagents for practical exercises, chemical experiments and 2.8 Refrigerators with freezers 5 Storage of chemical reagents, solutions and biological material for chambers “Chinar”, “Biryusa”, practical exercises , UIRS, NIRS "Stinol"

2.9 Storage cabinets 8 Storage of chemical reagents 2.10 Metal safe 1 Storage of toxic reagents and ethanol 3 General purpose equipment:

3.1 analytical damper 2 Gravimetric analysis in practical classes, UIRS, NIRS 3.6 Ultracentrifuge 1 Demonstration of the method of sedimentation analysis in practical classes (Germany) 3.8 Magnetic stirrers 2 Preparation of reagents for practical classes 3.9 Electric distiller DE - 1 Obtaining distilled water for preparing reagents for 3.10 Thermometers 10 Temperature control during chemical analyzes on 3.11 Set of hydrometers 1 Measuring the density of solutions 4 Special-purpose equipment:

4.1 Apparatus for electrophoresis at 1 Demonstration of the method of electrophoresis of serum proteins at 4.2 Apparatus for electrophoresis at 1 Demonstration of the method for separating serum lipoproteins 4.3 Equipment for column Demonstration of the method for separating proteins using chromatography 4.4 Equipment for Demonstration of the TLC method for separating lipids at practical thin chromatography layer. classes, NIRS Measuring equipment:

Photoelectric colorimeters:

4.8 Photometer “SOLAR” 1 Measurement of light absorption of colored solutions at 4.9 Spectrophotometer SF 16 1 Measurement light absorption of solutions in the visible and UV regions 4.10 Clinical spectrophotometer 1 Measurement of light absorption of solutions in the visible and UV regions of the “Schimadzu - CL–770” spectrum using spectral methods of determination 4.11 Highly efficient 1 Demonstration of the HPLC method (practical exercises, UIRS, NIRS) liquid chromatograph "Milichrome - 4".

4.12 Polarimeter 1 Demonstration of the optical activity of enantiomers, 4.13 Refractometer 1 Demonstration refractometric method of determination 4.14 pH meters 3 Preparation of buffer solutions, demonstration of buffer 5 Projection equipment:

5.1 Multimedia projector and 2 Demonstration of multimedia presentations, photo and overhead projectors: Demonstration slides during lectures and practical classes 5.3 “Semi-automatic bearing” 5.6 Device for demonstration Assigned to the morphological educational building. Demonstration of transparent films (overhead) and illustrative material at lectures, during UIRS and NIRS film projector.

6 Computer technology:

6.1 Cathedral network of 1 Access to educational resources INTERNET (national and personal computers with international electronic databases on chemistry, biology and access to INTERNET medicine) for teachers of the department and students in educational and 6.2 Personal computers 8 Creation by teachers of the department of printed and electronic staff of the department didactic materials during educational and methodological work, 6.3 Computer class for 10 1 Programmed testing of students’ knowledge in practical classes, during tests and exams (current, 7 Educational tables:

1. Peptide bond.

2. Regularity of the structure of the polypeptide chain.

3. Types of bonds in a protein molecule.

4. Disulfide bond.

5. Species specificity of proteins.

6. Secondary structure of proteins.

7. Tertiary structure of proteins.

8. Myoglobin and hemoglobin.

9. Hemoglobin and its derivatives.

10. Blood plasma lipoproteins.

11. Types of hyperlipidemia.

12. Electrophoresis of proteins on paper.

13. Scheme of protein biosynthesis.

14. Collagen and tropocollagen.

15. Myosin and actin.

16. Vitamin deficiency RR (pellagra).

17. Vitamin B1 deficiency.

18. Vitamin deficiency C.

19. Vitamin deficiency A.

20. Vitamin deficiency D (rickets).

21. Prostaglandins are physiologically active derivatives of unsaturated fatty acids.

22. Neuroxins formed from catechalamines and indolamines.

23. Products of non-enzymatic reactions of dopamine.

24. Neuropeptides.

25. Polyunsaturated fatty acids.

26. Interaction of liposomes with the cell membrane.

27. Free oxidation (differences from tissue respiration).

28. PUFAs of the omega 6 and omega 3 families.

2 Sets of slides for various sections of the program 8.6 Interactive learning tools (Internet technologies), multimedia materials, Electronic libraries and textbook, photo and video materials 1 Interactive learning tools (Internet technologies) 2 Multimedia materials Stonik V.A. (TIBOH DSC SB RAS) “Natural compounds are the basis 5 Borodin E.A. (AGMA) “Human genome. Genomics, proteomics and Author's presentation 6 Pivovarova E.N (Institute of Cytology and Genetics, Siberian Branch of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences) “The role of regulation of gene expression Author’s presentation of a person.”

3 Electronic libraries and textbooks:

2 MEDLINE. CD version of electronic databases on chemistry, biology and medicine.

3 Life Sciences. CD version of electronic databases on chemistry and biology.

4 Cambridge Scientific Abstracts. CD version of electronic databases on chemistry and biology.

5 PubMed - electronic database of the National Institute of Health http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/ Organic chemistry. Digital library. (Compiled by N.F. Tyukavkina, A.I. Khvostova) - M., 2005.

Organic and general chemistry. Medicine. Lectures for students, course. (Electronic manual). M., 2005

4 Videos:

3 MES TIBOKH DSC FEB RAS CD

5 Photo and video materials:

Author's photos and video materials of the head. department prof. E.A. Borodin about 1 universities of Uppsala (Sweden), Granada (Spain), medical schools Universities of Japan (Niigata, Osaka, Kanazawa, Hirosaki), Institute of Biochemistry and Chemistry of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences, Institute of Physical Chemistry and Chemistry of the Ministry of Health of Russia, TIBOKHE DSC. FEB RAS.

8.1. Examples of current control test items (with standard answers) for lesson No. 4 “Acidity and basicity organic molecules"

1. Select the characteristic features of Bronsted-Lowry acids:

1. increase the concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions 2. increase the concentration of hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions 3. are neutral molecules and ions - proton donors 4. are neutral molecules and ions - proton acceptors 5. do not affect the reaction of the medium 2. Specify the factors , affecting the acidity of organic molecules:

1. electronegativity of the heteroatom 2. polarizability of the heteroatom 3. nature of the radical 4. ability to dissociate 5. solubility in water 3. Choose the most from the listed compounds strong acids Brønsted:

1. alkanes 2. amines 3. alcohols 4. thiols 5. carboxylic acids 4. Indicate the characteristic features of organic compounds that have the properties of bases:

1. proton acceptors 2. proton donors 3. upon dissociation give hydroxyl ions 4. do not dissociate 5. basic properties determine reactivity 5. Select the weakest base from the given compounds:

1. ammonia 2. methylamine 3. phenylamine 4. ethylamine 5. propylamine 8.2 Examples of situational tasks of current control (with answer standards) 1. Determine the parent structure in the compound:

Solution. The choice of parent structure in the structural formula of an organic compound is regulated in the IUPAC substitutive nomenclature by a number of consistently applied rules (see Textbook, 1.2.1).

Each subsequent rule is applied only when the previous one does not allow making a clear choice. Compound I contains aliphatic and alicyclic fragments. According to the first rule, the structure with which the senior characteristic group is directly related is chosen as the parent structure. Of the two characteristic groups present in compound I (OH and NH), the hydroxyl group is the oldest. Therefore, the initial structure will be cyclohexane, which is reflected in the name of this compound - 4-aminomethylcyclohexanol.

2. The basis of the series is biologically important connections and drugs is a condensed heterocyclic purine system, including pyrimidine and imidazole nuclei. What explains the increased resistance of purine to oxidation?

Solution. Aromatic compounds have high conjugation energy and thermodynamic stability. One of the manifestations aromatic properties is oxidation resistance, although “externally”

aromatic compounds have high degree unsaturation, which usually causes a tendency to oxidation. To answer the question posed in the problem statement, it is necessary to establish whether purine belongs to aromatic systems.

According to the definition of aromaticity, a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for the emergence of a conjugated closed system is the presence in the molecule of a flat cyclic skeleton with a single electron cloud. In the purine molecule, all carbon and nitrogen atoms are in a state of sp2 hybridization, and therefore all the bonds lie in the same plane. Due to this, the orbitals of all atoms included in the cycle are located perpendicular to the skeletal plane and parallel to each other, which creates conditions for their mutual overlap with the formation of a single closed delocalized ti-electron system covering all the atoms of the cycle (circular conjugation).

Aromaticity is also determined by the number of -electrons, which must correspond to the formula 4/7 + 2, where n is the series natural numbers O, 1, 2, 3, etc. (Hückel's rule). Each carbon atom and the pyridine nitrogen atoms in positions 1, 3 and 7 contribute one p-electron to the conjugated system, and the pyrrole nitrogen atom in position 9 contributes a lone pair of electrons. The conjugated purine system contains 10 electrons, which corresponds to Hückel's rule at n = 2.

Thus, the purine molecule has an aromatic character and its resistance to oxidation is associated with this.

The presence of heteroatoms in the purine cycle leads to uneven distribution of electron density. Pyridine nitrogen atoms exhibit an electron-withdrawing character and reduce the electron density on carbon atoms. In this regard, the oxidation of purine, generally considered as the loss of electrons by the oxidizing compound, will be even more difficult compared to benzene.

8.3 Test tasks for testing (one option in full with answer standards) 1.Name the organogenic elements:

7.Si 8.Fe 9.Cu 2.Indicate functional groups that have a Pi bond:

1.Carboxyl 2.amino group 3.hydroxyl 4.oxo group 5.carbonyl 3.Indicate the senior functional group:

1.-C=O 2.-SO3H 3.-CII 4.-COOH 5.-OH 4.What class of organic compounds does lactic acid CH3-CHOH-COOH, formed in tissues as a result of the anaerobic breakdown of glucose, belong to?

1.Carboxylic acids 2.Hydroxy acids 3.Amino acids 4.Keto acids 5.Name by substitution nomenclature the substance that is the main energy fuel of the cell and has the following structure:

CH2-CH -CH -CH -CH -C=O

I I III I

OH OH OH OH OH H

1. 2,3,4,5,6-pentahydroxyhexanal 2.6-oxohexanepnentanol 1,2,3,4, 3. Glucose 4. Hexose 5.1,2,3,4,5-pentahydroxyhexanal- 6. Indicate the characteristic features of conjugated systems:

1. Equalization of the electron density of sigma and pi bonds 2. Stability and low reactivity 3. Instability and high reactivity 4. Contain alternating sigma and pi bonds 5. Pi bonds are separated by -CH2 groups 7. For which compounds characteristic Pi-Pi conjugation:

1. carotenes and vitamin A 2. pyrrole 3. pyridine 4. porphyrins 5. benzpyrene 8. Select substituents of the first kind, orienting to the ortho- and para-positions:

1.alkyl 2.- OH 3.- NH 4.- COOH 5.- SO3H 9. What effect does the -OH group have in aliphatic alcohols:

1. Positive inductive 2. Negative inductive 3. Positive mesomeric 4. Negative mesomeric 5. The type and sign of the effect depend on the position of the -OH group 10. Select the radicals that have a negative mesomeric effect 1. Halogens 2. Alkyl radicals 3. Amino group 4. Hydroxy group 5. Carboxy group 11. Select the characteristic features of Bronsted-Lowry acids:

1. increase the concentration of hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions 2. increase the concentration of hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions 3. are neutral molecules and ions - proton donors 4. are neutral molecules and ions - proton acceptors 5. do not affect the reaction of the medium 12. Specify the factors , affecting the acidity of organic molecules:

1. electronegativity of the heteroatom 2. polarizability of the heteroatom 3. nature of the radical 4. ability to dissociate 5. solubility in water 13. Select the strongest Bronsted acids from the listed compounds:

1. alkanes 2. amines 3. alcohols 4. thiols 5. carboxylic acids 14. Indicate the characteristic features of organic compounds that have the properties of bases:

1. proton acceptors 2. proton donors 3. upon dissociation they give hydroxyl ions 4. do not dissociate 5. basic properties determine reactivity 15. Select the weakest base from the given compounds:

1. ammonia 2. methylamine 3. phenylamine 4. ethylamine 5. propylamine 16. What features are used to classify reactions of organic compounds:

1. The mechanism of breaking a chemical bond 2. The final result of the reaction 3. The number of molecules participating in the stage that determines the rate of the entire process 4. The nature of the reagent attacking the bond 17. Select the active forms of oxygen:

1. singlet oxygen 2. peroxide diradical -O-O-Superoxide ion 4. hydroxyl radical 5. triplet molecular oxygen 18. Select the characteristic features of electrophilic reagents:

1.particles that carry a partial or complete positive charge 2.are formed by the homolytic cleavage of a covalent bond 3.particles that carry an unpaired electron 4.particles that carry a partial or complete negative charge 5.are formed by the heterolytic cleavage of a covalent bond 19.Select compounds for which Characteristic reactions are electrophilic substitution:

1. alkenes 2. arenes 3. alkadienes 4. aromatic heterocycles 5. alkanes 20. Indicate the biological role of free radical oxidation reactions:

1. phagocytic activity of cells 2. universal mechanism of destruction of cell membranes 3. self-renewal of cellular structures 4. play a decisive role in the development of many pathological processes 21. Select which classes of organic compounds are characterized by nucleophilic substitution reactions:

1. alcohols 2. amines 3. halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons 4. thiols 5. aldehydes 22. In what order does the reactivity of substrates decrease in nucleophilic substitution reactions:

1. halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons, amine alcohols 2. amine alcohols, halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons 3. amine alcohols, halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons 4. halogen derivatives of hydrocarbons, amine alcohols 23. Select polyhydric alcohols from the listed compounds:

1. ethanol 2. ethylene glycol 3. glycerol 4. xylitol 5. sorbitol 24. Choose what is characteristic of this reaction:

CH3-CH2OH --- CH2=CH2 + H2O 1. elimination reaction 2. intramolecular dehydration reaction 3. occurs in the presence of mineral acids when heated 4. occurs under normal conditions 5. intermolecular dehydration reaction 25. What properties appear when introduced into a molecule organic matter chlorine:

1. narcotic properties 2. lachrymatory (tearing) 3. antiseptic properties 26. Select the reactions characteristic of the SP2-hybridized carbon atom in oxo compounds:

1. nucleophilic addition 2. nucleophilic substitution 3. electrophilic addition 4. homolytic reactions 5. heterolytic reactions 27. In what order does the ease of nucleophilic attack of carbonyl compounds decrease:

1. aldehydes ketones anhydrides esters amides salts of carboxylic acids 2. ketones aldehydes anhydrides esters amides salts of carboxylic acids 3. anhydrides aldehydes ketones esters amides salts of carboxylic acids 28. Determine what is characteristic of this reaction:

1.qualitative reaction to aldehydes 2.aldehyde is a reducing agent, silver oxide (I) is an oxidizing agent 3.aldehyde is an oxidizing agent, silver oxide (I) is a reducing agent 4.redox reaction 5.occurs in an alkaline medium 6.characteristic of ketones 29 .Which of the following carbonyl compounds undergo decarboxylation to form biogenic amines?

1. carboxylic acids 2. amino acids 3. oxo acids 4. hydroxy acids 5. benzoic acid 30. How do they change acid properties in the homologous series of carboxylic acids:

1. increase 2. decrease 3. do not change 31. Which of the proposed classes of compounds are heterofunctional:

1. hydroxy acids 2. oxo acids 3. amino alcohols 4. amino acids 5. dicarboxylic acids 32. Hydroxy acids include:

1. citric 2. butyric 3. acetoacetic 4. pyruvic 5. malic 33. Select medications - derivatives of salicylic acid:

1. paracetamol 2. phenacetin 3. sulfonamides 4. aspirin 5. PAS 34. Select drugs - p-aminophenol derivatives:

1. paracetamol 2. phenacetin 3. sulfonamides 4. aspirin 5. PAS 35. Select drugs - sulfanilic acid derivatives:

1. paracetamol 2. phenacetin 3. sulfonamides 4. aspirin 5. PASK 36. Select the main provisions of the theory of A.M. Butlerov:

1. carbon atoms are connected by simple and multiple bonds 2. carbon in organic compounds is tetravalent 3. the functional group determines the properties of the substance 4. carbon atoms form open and closed cycles 5. in organic compounds carbon is in a reduced form 37. Which isomers are classified as spatial:

1. chains 2. position of multiple bonds 3. functional groups 4. structural 5. configurational 38. Choose what is characteristic of the concept “conformation”:

1. the possibility of rotation around one or more sigma bonds 2. conformers are isomers 3. a change in the sequence of bonds 4. a change in the spatial arrangement of substituents 5. a change in the electronic structure 39. Choose the similarity between enantiomers and diastereomers:

1. have the same physicochemical properties 2. are able to rotate the plane of polarization of light 3. are not able to rotate the plane of polarization of light 4. are stereoisomers 5. are characterized by the presence of a center of chirality 40. Select the similarity between configurational and conformational isomerism:

1. Isomerism is associated with different positions in space of atoms and groups of atoms 2. Isomerism is due to the rotation of atoms or groups of atoms around a sigma bond 3. Isomerism is due to the presence of a center of chirality in the molecule 4. Isomerism is due to different arrangements of substituents relative to the pi bond plane.

41.Name the heteroatoms that make up biologically important heterocycles:

1.nitrogen 2.phosphorus 3.sulfur 4.carbon 5.oxygen 42.Indicate the 5-membered heterocycle that is part of porphyrins:

1.pyrrolidine 2.imidazole 3.pyrrole 4.pyrazole 5.furan 43.Which heterocycle with one heteroatom is part of nicotinic acid:

1. purine 2. pyrazole 3. pyrrole 4. pyridine 5. pyrimidine 44. Name the final product of purine oxidation in the body:

1. hypoxanthine 2. xanthine 3. uric acid 45. Specify opium alkaloids:

1. strychnine 2. papaverine 4. morphine 5. reserpine 6. quinine 6. What oxidation reactions are characteristic of the human body:

1.dehydrogenation 2.addition of oxygen 3.donation of electrons 4.addition of halogens 5.interaction with potassium permanganate, nitric and perchloric acids 47.What determines the degree of oxidation of a carbon atom in organic compounds:

1. the number of its bonds with atoms of elements more electronegative than hydrogen 2. the number of its bonds with oxygen atoms 3. the number of its bonds with hydrogen atoms 48. What compounds are formed during the oxidation of the primary carbon atom?

1. primary alcohol 2. secondary alcohol 3. aldehyde 4. ketone 5. carboxylic acid 49. Determine what is characteristic of oxidase reactions:

1. oxygen is reduced to water 2. oxygen is included in the composition of the oxidized molecule 3. oxygen goes to the oxidation of hydrogen split off from the substrate 4. reactions have an energetic value 5. reactions have a plastic value 50. Which of the proposed substrates is oxidized more easily in the cell and why?

1. glucose 2. fatty acid 3. contains partially oxidized carbon atoms 4. contains fully hydrogenated carbon atoms 51. Select aldoses:

1. glucose 2. ribose 3. fructose 4. galactose 5. deoxyribose 52. Select the reserve forms of carbohydrates in a living organism:

1. fiber 2. starch 3. glycogen 4. hyaluric acid 5. sucrose 53. Select the most common monosaccharides in nature:

1. trioses 2. tetroses 3. pentoses 4. hexoses 5. heptoses 54. Select amino sugars:

1. beta-ribose 2. glucosamine 3. galactosamine 4. acetylgalactosamine 5. deoxyribose 55. Select the products of monosaccharide oxidation:

1. glucose-6-phosphate 2. glyconic (aldonic) acids 3. glycuronic (uronic) acids 4. glycosides 5. esters 56. Select disaccharides:

1. maltose 2. fiber 3. glycogen 4. sucrose 5. lactose 57. Select homopolysaccharides:

1. starch 2. cellulose 3. glycogen 4. dextran 5. lactose 58. Select which monosaccharides are formed during the hydrolysis of lactose:

1.beta-D-galactose 2.alpha-D-glucose 3.alpha-D-fructose 4.alpha-D-galactose 5.alpha-D-deoxyribose 59. Choose what is characteristic of cellulose:

1. linear, plant polysaccharide 2. structural unit is beta-D-glucose 3. necessary for normal nutrition, is a ballast substance 4. the main carbohydrate in humans 5. does not break down in the gastrointestinal tract 60. Select the carbohydrate derivatives that make up muramin:

1.N-acetylglucosamine 2.N-acetylmuramic acid 3.glucosamine 4.glucuronic acid 5.ribulose-5-phosphate 61.Choose the correct statements from the following: Amino acids are...

1. compounds containing both amino and hydroxy groups in the molecule 2. compounds containing hydroxyl and carboxyl groups 3. are derivatives of carboxylic acids in the radical of which hydrogen is replaced by an amino group 4. compounds containing oxo and carboxyl groups in the molecule 5. compounds containing hydroxy and aldehyde groups 62. How are amino acids classified?

1.by chemical nature radical 2. by physicochemical properties 3. by the number of functional groups 4. by the degree of unsaturation 5. by the nature of additional functional groups 63. Select an aromatic amino acid:

1. glycine 2. serine 3. glutamic 4. phenylalanine 5. methionine 64. Select an amino acid that exhibits acidic properties:

1. leucine 2. tryptophan 3. glycine 4. glutamic acid 5. alanine 65. Select a basic amino acid:

1. serine 2. lysine 3. alanine 4. glutamine 5. tryptophan 66. Select purine nitrogenous bases:

1. thymine 2. adenine 3. guanine 4. uracil 5. cytosine 67. Select pyrimidine nitrogenous bases:

1.uracil 2.thymine 3.cytosine 4.adenine 5.guanine 68.Select the components of the nucleoside:

1.purine nitrogenous bases 2.pyrimidine nitrogenous bases 3.ribose 4.deoxyribose 5.phosphoric acid 69.Indicate the structural components of nucleotides:

1. purine nitrogenous bases 2. pyrimidine nitrogenous bases 3. ribose 4. deoxyribose 5. phosphoric acid 70. Indicate the distinctive features of DNA:

1. formed by one polynucleotide chain 2. formed by two polynucleotide chains 3. contains ribose 4. contains deoxyribose 5. contains uracil 6. contains thymine 71. Select saponifiable lipids:

1. neutral fats 2. triacylglycerols 3. phospholipids 4. sphingomyelins 5. steroids 72. Select unsaturated fatty acids:

1. palmitic 2. stearic 3. oleic 4. linoleic 5. arachidonic 73. Specify the characteristic composition of neutral fats:

1.mericyl alcohol + palmitic acid 2.glycerol + butyric acid 3.sphingosine + phosphoric acid 4.glycerol + higher carboxylic acid + phosphoric acid 5.glycerol + higher carboxylic acids 74. Choose what function phospholipids perform in the human body:

1. regulatory 2. protective 3. structural 4. energetic 75. Select glycolipids:

1.phosphatidylcholine 2.cerebrosides 3.sphingomyelins 4.sulfatides 5.gangliosides

ANSWERS TO TEST TASKS

8.4 List of practical skills and tasks (in full) required for passing 1. The ability to classify organic compounds according to the structure of the carbon skeleton and 2. The ability to draw up formulas by name and name typical representatives of biologically important substances and drugs by structural formula.

3. The ability to isolate functional groups, acidic and basic centers, conjugated and aromatic fragments in molecules to determine chemical behavior 4. The ability to predict the direction and result of organic chemical transformations 5. Possession of the skills of independent work with educational, scientific and reference literature; conduct a search and draw general conclusions.

6. Possession of skills in handling chemical glassware.

7. Possession of safe work skills in a chemical laboratory and the ability to handle caustic, poisonous, highly volatile organic compounds, work with burners, alcohol lamps and electric heating devices.

1. Subject and tasks of bioorganic chemistry. Implications in medical education.

2. The elemental composition of organic compounds, as the reason for their compliance with biological processes.

3. Classification of organic compounds. Classes, general formulas, functional groups, individual representatives.

4. Nomenclature of organic compounds. Trivial names. Substitute IUPAC nomenclature.

5. Main functional groups. Parental structure. Deputies. Seniority of groups, deputies. Names of functional groups and substituents as prefixes and endings.

6. Theoretical foundations of the structure of organic compounds. Theory of A.M. Butlerov.

Structural formulas. Structural isomerism. Chain and position isomers.

7. Spatial structure of organic compounds. Stereochemical formulas.

Molecular models. The most important concepts in stereochemistry are the configuration and conformation of organic molecules.

8. Conformations of open chains - eclipsed, inhibited, oblique. Energy and reactivity of different conformations.

9. Conformations of cycles using the example of cyclohexane (chair and bath). Axial and equatorial connections.

10. Mutual influence of atoms in molecules of organic compounds. Its causes, types of manifestation. Influence on the reactivity of molecules.

11.Pairing. Conjugate systems, conjugate connections. Pi-pi conjugation in dienes. Conjugation energy. Stability of coupled systems (vitamin A).

12. Pairing in arenas (pi-pi pairing). Aromaticity. Hückel's rule. Benzene, naphthalene, phenanthrene. Reactivity of the benzene ring.

13. Conjugation in heterocycles (p-pi and pi-pi conjugation using the example of pyrrole and pyridine).

Stability of heterocycles - biological significance using the example of tetrapyrrole compounds.

14.Polarization of bonds. Causes. Polarization in alcohols, phenols, carbonyl compounds, thiols. Influence on the reactivity of molecules.\ 15.Electronic effects. Inductive effect in molecules containing sigma bonds. Sign of the inductive effect.

16.Mesomeric effect in open chains with conjugated pi bonds using the example of 1,3 butadiene.

17.Mesomeric effect in aromatic compounds.

18.Electron-donating and electron-withdrawing substituents.

19. Deputies of the 1st and 2nd kind. Rule of orientation in the benzene ring.

20.Acidity and basicity of organic compounds. Brendstet-Lowry acids and bases.

Acid-base pairs are conjugate acids and bases. Ka and pKa are quantitative characteristics of the acidity of organic compounds. The importance of acidity for the functional activity of organic molecules.

21.Acidity of various classes of organic compounds. Factors that determine the acidity of organic compounds are the electronegativity of the non-metal atom bonded to hydrogen, the polarizability of the non-metal atom, the nature of the radical bonded to the non-metal atom.

22.Organic bases. Amines. Reason for basicity. The influence of radicals on the basicity of aliphatic and aromatic amines.

23. Classification of reactions of organic compounds according to their mechanism. Concepts of homolytic and heterolytic reactions.

24. Radical substitution reactions in alkanes. Free radical oxidation in living organisms. Active forms oxygen.

25. Electrophilic addition in alkenes. Formation of Pi-complexes, carbocations. Reactions of hydration, hydrogenation.

26. Electrophilic substitution in the aromatic ring. Formation of intermediate sigma complexes. Benzene bromination reaction.

27.Nucleophilic substitution in alcohols. Reactions of dehydration, oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols, formation of esters.

28.Nucleophilic addition of carbonyl compounds. Biologically important reactions of aldehydes: oxidation, formation of hemiacetals when interacting with alcohols.

29.Nucleophilic substitution in carboxylic acids. Biologically important reactions of carboxylic acids.

30. Oxidation of organic compounds, biological significance. The degree of oxidation of carbon in organic molecules. Oxidability of different classes of organic compounds.

31.Energetic oxidation. Oxidase reactions.

32.Non-energetic oxidation. Oxygenase reactions.

33. The role of free radical oxidation in the bactericidal action of phagocytic cells.

34. Restoration of organic compounds. Biological significance.

35.Multifunctional compounds. Polyhydric alcohols - ethylene glycol, glycerin, xylitol, sorbitol, inositol. Biological significance. Biologically important reactions of glycerol are oxidation and formation of esters.

36.Dibasic dicarboxylic acids: oxalic, malonic, succinic, glutaric.

The conversion of succinic acid to fumaric acid is an example of biological dehydrogenation.

37. Amines. Classification:

By the nature of the radical (aliphatic and aromatic); -in count radicals (primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary ammonium bases); -by the number of amino groups (mono- and diamines-). Diamines: putrescine and cadaverine.

38. Heterofunctional compounds. Definition. Examples. Features of the manifestation of chemical properties.

39. Amino alcohols: ethanolamine, choline, acetylcholine. Biological significance.

40.Hydroxyacids. Definition. General formula. Classification. Nomenclature. Isomerism.

Representatives of monocarboxylic hydroxy acids: lactic, beta-hydroxybutyric, gamma-hydroxybutyric;

dicarbonate: apple, wine; tricarboxylic: lemon; aromatic: salicylic.

41. Chemical properties of hydroxy acids: by carboxyl, by hydroxyl group, dehydration reactions of alpha, beta and gamma isomers, difference in reaction products (lactides, unsaturated acids, lactones).

42.Stereoisomerism. Enantiomers and diastereomers. Chirality of molecules of organic compounds as a cause of optical isomerism.

43. Enantiomers with one chirality center (lactic acid). Absolute and relative configuration of enantiomers. Oxyacid key. D and L glyceraldehyde. D and L isomers.

Racemates.

44.Enantiomers with several centers of chirality. Tartaric and mesotartaric acids.

45.Stereoisomerism and biological activity of stereoisomers.

46.Cis-and trans-isomerism using the example of fumaric and maleic acids.

47.Oxoacids. Definition. Biologically important representatives: pyruvic acid, acetoacetic acid, oxaloacetic acid. Ketoenol tautomerism using the example of pyruvic acid.

48. Amino acids. Definition. General formula. Isomers of amino group position (alpha, beta, gamma). Biological significance of alpha amino acids. Representatives of beta-, gamma- and other isomers (beta-aminopropionic, gamma-aminobutyric, epsilonaminocaproic). Dehydration reaction of gamma isomers with the formation of cyclic lactones.

49. Heterofunctional benzene derivatives as the basis of medicines. Derivatives of p-aminobenzoic acid - PABA (folic acid, anesthesin). PABA antagonists are sulfanilic acid derivatives (sulfonamides - streptocide).

50. Heterofunctional benzene derivatives - medicines. Raminophenol derivatives (paracetamol), salicylic acid derivatives (acetylsalicylic acid). Raminosalicylic acid - PAS.

51.Biologically important heterocycles. Definition. Classification. Features of structure and properties: conjugation, aromaticity, stability, reactivity. Biological significance.

52. Five-membered heterocycles with one heteroatom and their derivatives. Pyrrole (porphin, porphyrins, heme), furan (medicines), thiophene (biotin).

53. Five-membered heterocycles with two heteroatoms and their derivatives. Pyrazole (5-oxo derivatives), imidazole (histidine), thiazole (vitamin B1-thiamine).

54. Six-membered heterocycles with one heteroatom and their derivatives. Pyridine (nicotinic acid - participation in redox reactions, vitamin B6-pyridoxal), quinoline (5-NOK), isoquinoline (alkaloids).

55. Six-membered heterocycles with two heteroatoms. Pyrimidine (cytosine, uracil, thymine).

56.Fused heterocycles. Purine (adenine, guanine). Purine oxidation products hypoxanthine, xanthine, uric acid).

57. Alkaloids. Definition and general characteristics. The structure of nicotine and caffeine.

58.Carbohydrates. Definition. Classification. Functions of carbohydrates in living organisms.

59.Monosugars. Definition. Classification. Representatives.

60.Pentoses. Representatives are ribose and deoxyribose. Structure, open and cyclic formulas. Biological significance.

61.Hexoses. Aldoses and ketoses. Representatives.

62.Open formulas of monosaccharides. Determination of stereochemical configuration. Biological significance of the configuration of monosaccharides.

63. Formation of cyclic forms of monosaccharides. Glycosidic hydroxyl. Alpha and beta anomers. Haworth's formulas.

64. Derivatives of monosaccharides. Phosphorus esters, glyconic and glycuronic acids, amino sugars and their acetyl derivatives.

65. Maltose. Composition, structure, hydrolysis and significance.

66.Lactose. Synonym. Composition, structure, hydrolysis and significance.

67.Sucrose. Synonyms. Composition, structure, hydrolysis and significance.

68. Homopolysaccharides. Representatives. Starch, structure, properties, hydrolysis products, significance.

69.Glycogen. Structure, role in the animal organism.

70. Fiber. Structure, role in plants, significance for humans.

72. Heteropolysaccharides. Synonyms. Functions. Representatives. Structural features: dimer units, composition. 1,3- and 1,4-glycosidic bonds.

73.Hyaluronic acid. Composition, structure, properties, significance in the body.

74.Chondroitin sulfate. Composition, structure, significance in the body.

75.Muramin. Composition, meaning.

76. Alpha amino acids. Definition. General formula. Nomenclature. Classification. Individual representatives. Stereoisomerism.

77. Chemical properties of alpha amino acids. Amphotericity, decarboxylation, deamination reactions, hydroxylation in the radical, formation of a peptide bond.

78.Peptides. Individual peptides. Biological role.

79. Squirrels. Functions of proteins. Levels of structure.

80. Nitrogen bases of nucleic acids - purines and pyrimidines. Modified nitrogenous bases - antimetabolites (fluorouracil, mercaptopurine).

81.Nucleosides. Nucleoside antibiotics. Nucleotides. Mononucleotides in the composition of nucleic acids and free nucleotides are coenzymes.

82. Nucleic acids. DNA and RNA. Biological significance. Formation of phosphodiester bonds between mononucleotides. Levels of nucleic acid structure.

83. Lipids. Definition. Biological role. Classification.

84.Higher carboxylic acids - saturated (palmitic, stearic) and unsaturated (oleic, linoleic, linolenic and arachidonic).

85. Neutral fats - acylglycerols. Structure, meaning. Animal and vegetable fats.

Hydrolysis of fats - products, meaning. Hydrogenation of vegetable oils, artificial fats.

86. Glycerophospholipids. Structure: phosphatidic acid and nitrogenous bases.

Phosphatidylcholine.

87. Sphingolipids. Structure. Sphingosine. Sphingomyelin.

88.Steroids. Cholesterol - structure, meaning, derivatives: bile acids and steroid hormones.

89.Terpenes and terpenoids. Structure and biological significance. Representatives.

90.Fat-soluble vitamins. General characteristics.

91. Anesthesia. Diethyl ether. Chloroform. Meaning.

92. Drugs that stimulate metabolic processes.

93. Sulfonamides, structure, significance. White streptocid.

94. Antibiotics.

95. Anti-inflammatory and antipyretic drugs. Paracetamol. Structure. Meaning.

96. Antioxidants. Characteristic. Meaning.

96. Thiols. Antidotes.

97. Anticoagulants. Characteristic. Meaning.

98. Barbiturates. Characteristic.

99. Analgesics. Meaning. Examples. Acetylsalicylic acid (aspirin).

100. Antiseptics. Meaning. Examples. Furacilin. Characteristic. Meaning.

101. Antiviral drugs.

102. Diuretics.

103. Means for parenteral nutrition.

104. PABC, PASK. Structure. Characteristic. Meaning.

105. Iodoform. Xeroform.Meaning.

106. Poliglyukin. Characteristic. Value 107.Formalin. Characteristic. Meaning.

108. Xylitol, sorbitol. Structure, meaning.

109. Resorcinol. Structure, meaning.

110. Atropine. Meaning.

111. Caffeine. Structure. Value 113. Furacilin. Furazolidone. Characteristic.Value.

114. GABA, GHB, succinic acid.. Structure. Meaning.

115. Nicotinic acid. Structure, meaning

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Chemistry- the science of the structure, properties of substances, their transformations and accompanying phenomena.

Tasks:

1. Study of the structure of matter, development of the theory of the structure and properties of molecules and materials. It is important to establish a connection between the structure and various properties of substances and, on this basis, to construct theories of the reactivity of a substance, kinetics and mechanism chemical reactions and catalytic phenomena.

2. Implementation of targeted synthesis of new substances with specified properties. Here it is also important to find new reactions and catalysts for more efficient synthesis of already known and industrially important compounds.

3. The traditional task of chemistry has acquired special significance. It is associated both with an increase in the number of chemical objects and properties being studied, and with the need to determine and reduce the consequences of human impact on nature.

Chemistry is a general theoretical discipline. It is designed to give students a modern scientific understanding of matter as one of the types of moving matter, about the ways, mechanisms and methods of converting some substances into others. Knowledge of basic chemical laws, mastery of chemical calculation techniques, understanding of the opportunities provided by chemistry with the help of other specialists working in its individual and narrow fields significantly speeds up obtaining the desired result in various fields of engineering and scientific activity.

The chemical industry is one of the most important industries in our country. The chemical compounds, various compositions and materials it produces are used everywhere: in mechanical engineering, metallurgy, agriculture, construction, electrical and electronic industry, communications, transport, space technology, medicine, everyday life, etc. The main directions of development of modern chemical industry are: production of new compounds and materials and increasing the efficiency of existing production.

At a medical school, students study general, bioorganic, biological chemistry, as well as clinical biochemistry. Students’ knowledge of the complex of chemical sciences in their continuity and interrelation provides greater opportunity, greater scope for research and practical use various phenomena, properties and patterns, contributes to the development of personality.

Specific features of studying chemical disciplines at a medical university are:

· interdependence between the goals of chemical and medical education;

· universality and fundamentality of these courses;

· the peculiarity of constructing their content depending on the nature and general goals of the doctor’s training and his specialization;

· unity of studying chemical objects at micro- and macro-levels with the disclosure of their different forms chemical organization as a single system and the various functions it exhibits (chemical, biological, biochemical, physiological, etc.) depending on their nature, environment and conditions;

· dependence on the connection of chemical knowledge and skills with reality and practice, including medical practice, in the system “society - nature - production - man”, due to the unlimited possibilities of chemistry in the creation of synthetic materials and their importance in medicine, the development of nanochemistry, as well as in solving environmental and many other global problems humanity.

1. The relationship between metabolic processes and energy in the body

Life processes on Earth are determined to a large extent by the accumulation of solar energy in nutrients - proteins, fats, carbohydrates and the subsequent transformations of these substances in living organisms with the release of energy. The understanding of the relationship between chemical transformations and energy processes in the body was realized especially clearly after works by A. Lavoisier (1743-1794) and P. Laplace (1749-1827). They showed by direct calorimetric measurements that the energy released during life is determined by the oxidation of food by air oxygen inhaled by animals.

Metabolism and energy is a set of processes of transformation of substances and energy occurring in living organisms, and the exchange of substances and energy between the organism and the environment. Metabolism of substances and energy is the basis of the life of organisms and is one of the most important specific characteristics of living matter, distinguishing living from non-living. Metabolism, or metabolism, which is ensured by highly complex regulation at different levels, involves many enzyme systems. During the metabolic process, substances entering the body are converted into tissues’ own substances and into final products excreted from the body. During these transformations, energy is released and absorbed.

With the development in the XIX-XX centuries. thermodynamics - the science of the interconversion of heat and energy - it became possible to quantitatively calculate the transformation of energy in biochemical reactions and predict their direction.

Energy exchange can be carried out by transferring heat or doing work. However, living organisms are not in equilibrium with their environment and therefore can be called non-equilibrium open systems. However, when observed over a certain period of time, there are no visible changes in the chemical composition of the body. But that doesn't mean that chemical substances, making up the body, do not undergo any transformations. On the contrary, they are constantly and quite intensively renewed, as can be judged by the rate at which stable isotopes and radionuclides introduced into the cell as part of simpler precursor substances are incorporated into complex substances of the body.

There is one thing between metabolism and energy metabolism fundamental difference. The earth does not lose or gain any appreciable amount of matter. Matter in the biosphere is exchanged in a closed cycle, etc. used repeatedly. Energy exchange is carried out differently. It does not circulate in a closed cycle, but is partially dispersed into external space. Therefore, to maintain life on Earth, a constant flow of energy from the Sun is necessary. For 1 year in the process of photosynthesis on globe absorbed around 10 21 feces solar energy. Although it represents only 0.02% of the total energy of the Sun, it is immeasurably more than the energy used by all man-made machines. The amount of substance participating in the circulation is equally large.

2. Chemical thermodynamics as theoretical basis bioenergy. Subject and methods of chemical thermodynamics

Chemical thermodynamics studies the transitions of chemical energy into other forms - thermal, electrical, etc., establishes the quantitative laws of these transitions, as well as the direction and limits of the spontaneous occurrence of chemical reactions under given conditions.

The thermodynamic method is based on a number of strict concepts: “system”, “state of the system”, “ internal energy systems", "system state function".

Object studying in thermodynamics is a system

The same system can be in different states. Each state of the system is characterized by a certain set of values ​​of thermodynamic parameters. Thermodynamic parameters include temperature, pressure, density, concentration, etc. A change in at least one thermodynamic parameter leads to a change in the state of the system as a whole. The thermodynamic state of a system is called equilibrium if it is characterized by constancy of thermodynamic parameters at all points of the system and does not change spontaneously (without the expenditure of work).

Chemical thermodynamics studies a system in two equilibrium states (final and initial) and on this basis determines the possibility (or impossibility) of a spontaneous process under given conditions in a specified direction.

Thermodynamics studies mutual transformations of various types of energy associated with the transfer of energy between bodies in the form of heat and work. Thermodynamics is based on two basic laws, called the first and second laws of thermodynamics. Subject of study in thermodynamics is energy and the laws of mutual transformations of energy forms during chemical reactions, processes of dissolution, evaporation, crystallization.

Chemical thermodynamics is a branch of physical chemistry that studies the processes of interaction of substances using thermodynamic methods.
The main directions of chemical thermodynamics are:
Classical chemical thermodynamics, which studies thermodynamic equilibrium in general.
Thermochemistry, which studies the thermal effects accompanying chemical reactions.
The theory of solutions, which models the thermodynamic properties of a substance based on ideas about the molecular structure and data on intermolecular interaction.
Chemical thermodynamics is closely related to such branches of chemistry as analytical chemistry; electrochemistry; colloid chemistry; adsorption and chromatography.
The development of chemical thermodynamics proceeded simultaneously in two ways: thermochemical and thermodynamic.
The emergence of thermochemistry as an independent science should be considered the discovery by Herman Ivanovich Hess, a professor at St. Petersburg University, of the relationship between the thermal effects of chemical reactions -- Hess's laws.

3. Thermodynamic systems: isolated, closed, open, homogeneous, heterogeneous. The concept of phase.

System- this is a collection of interacting substances, mentally or actually isolated from the environment (test tube, autoclave).

Chemical thermodynamics considers transitions from one state to another, while some may change or remain constant. options:

· isobaric– at constant pressure;

· isochoric– at constant volume;

· isothermal– at constant temperature;

· isobaric - isothermal– at constant pressure and temperature, etc.

Thermodynamic properties systems can be expressed using several system state functions, called characteristic functions: internal energyU , enthalpy H , entropy S , Gibbs energy G , Helmholtz energy F . Characteristic functions have one feature: they do not depend on the method (path) of achieving a given state of the system. Their value is determined by the parameters of the system (pressure, temperature, etc.) and depends on the amount or mass of the substance, so it is customary to refer them to one mole of the substance.

According to the method of transferring energy, matter and information between the system under consideration and the environment, thermodynamic systems are classified:

1. Closed (isolated) system- this is a system in which there is no exchange of energy, matter (including radiation), or information with external bodies.

2. Closed system- a system in which there is an exchange only with energy.

3. Adiabatically isolated system - This is a system in which there is an exchange of energy only in the form of heat.

4. Open system is a system that exchanges energy, matter, and information.

System classification:
1) if heat and mass transfer are possible: insulated, closed, open. An isolated system does not exchange either matter or energy with the environment. A closed system exchanges energy with the environment, but does not exchange matter. An open system exchanges both matter and energy with its environment. The concept of an isolated system is used in physical chemistry as a theoretical one.
2) by internal structure and properties: homogeneous and heterogeneous. A system is called homogeneous, inside which there are no surfaces dividing the system into parts that differ in properties or chemical composition. Examples of homogeneous systems are aqueous solutions of acids, bases, and salts; gas mixtures; individual pure substances. Heterogeneous systems contain natural surfaces within them. Examples of heterogeneous systems are systems consisting of substances that differ in their state of aggregation: a metal and an acid, a gas and a solid, two liquids insoluble in each other.
Phase- this is a homogeneous part of a heterogeneous system, having the same composition, physical and chemical properties, separated from other parts of the system by a surface, upon passing through which the properties of the system change abruptly. The phases are solid, liquid and gaseous. A homogeneous system always consists of one phase, a heterogeneous one - of several. Based on the number of phases, systems are classified into single-phase, two-phase, three-phase, etc.

5.The first law of thermodynamics. Internal energy. Isobaric and isochoric thermal effects .

First law of thermodynamics- one of the three basic laws of thermodynamics, represents the law of conservation of energy for thermodynamic systems.

The first law of thermodynamics was formulated in the middle of the 19th century as a result of the work of the German scientist J. R. Mayer, the English physicist J. P. Joule and the German physicist G. Helmholtz.

According to the first law of thermodynamics, a thermodynamic system can undergo work only due to its internal energy or any external energy sources .

The first law of thermodynamics is often formulated as the impossibility of the existence of a perpetual motion machine of the first kind, which would do work without drawing energy from any source. A process occurring at a constant temperature is called isothermal, at constant pressure - isobaric, at constant volume – isochoric. If during a process the system is isolated from the external environment in such a way that heat exchange with the environment is excluded, the process is called adiabatic.

Internal energy of the system. When a system transitions from one state to another, some of its properties change, in particular internal energy U.

The internal energy of a system is its total energy, which consists of the kinetic and potential energies of molecules, atoms, atomic nuclei and electrons. Internal energy includes the energy of translational, rotational and oscillatory movements, as well as potential energy due to the forces of attraction and repulsion acting between molecules, atoms and intra-atomic particles. It does not include the potential energy of the system’s position in space and the kinetic energy of the system’s motion as a whole.

Internal energy is a thermodynamic function of the state of the system. This means that whenever the system finds itself in a given state, its internal energy takes on a certain value inherent in this state.

∆U = U 2 - U 1

where U 1 and U 2 are the internal energy of the system V final and initial states, respectively.

First law of thermodynamics. If the system exchanges thermal energy Q and mechanical energy(work) A, and at the same time transitions from state 1 to state 2, the amount of energy that is released or absorbed by the system of forms of heat Q or work A is equal to the total energy of the system during the transition from one state to another and is recorded.