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1.Introduction. Scientific picture of the world 2. Subject of knowledge and the most important features of chemical science 2.1. Alchemy as a prehistory of chemistry. Evolution of chemical science 2.2. Specifics of chemistry as a science 2.3. The most important features of modern chemistry 3. Conceptual systems of chemistry 3. 1. The concept of a chemical element 3. 2. The modern picture of chemical knowledge 3. 2. 1. The doctrine of the composition of matter 3. 2. 2. Organogens 3. 2. 3. The doctrine of chemical processes 4. Anthropogenic chemistry and its impact on the environment 5. Conclusions

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Every person tries to understand this world and understand their place in it. In order to understand the world, a person, from private knowledge about the phenomena and laws of nature, tries to create a general one - a scientific picture of the world - the basic ideas of the natural sciences - principles - patterns that are not isolated from each other, but constitute the unity of knowledge about nature, determining the style of scientific thinking at this stage development of science and culture of mankind

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Scientists identify different pictures of the world and offer their criteria for the classification of “World” - reality, reality (objective), being, nature and man. Scientists subdivide pictures of the world into scientific, philosophical, conceptual, naive and artistic. In our time, the general NCM includes its parts varying degrees of universality: Physical KM (FKM) Astronomical (AKM) Biological (BKM) Chemical (HKM)

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The scientific picture of the world is a special form of theoretical knowledge that represents the subject of scientific research in accordance with a certain stage of its historical development, through which specific knowledge obtained in various fields of scientific research is integrated and systematized. (Newest philosophical dictionary) Scientific picture of the world (SPM) - a system of ideas about the properties and patterns of reality (the really existing world), built as a result of generalization and synthesis of scientific concepts and principles, as well as a methodology for obtaining scientific knowledge" (Internet dictionary "Wikipedia" ) The scientific picture of the world is a set of theories collectively describing the natural world known to man, a holistic system of ideas about the general principles and laws of the structure of the universe

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Historical types They are usually personified by the names of three scientists who played the greatest role in the changes that took place 1. Aristotelian (VI-IV centuries BC) as a result of this scientific revolution, science itself arose, science was separated from other forms of knowledge and exploration of the world, certain norms were created and samples of scientific knowledge. This revolution is most fully reflected in the works of Aristotle. He established a kind of canon for the organization of scientific research (history of the issue, statement of the problem, arguments for and against, justification for the decision), differentiated knowledge itself, separating the natural sciences from mathematics and metaphysics

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2. Newtonian scientific revolution (XVI-XVIII centuries) Its starting point is considered to be the transition from a geocentric model of the world to a heliocentric one; this transition was caused by a series of discoveries associated with the names of N. Copernicus, G. Galileo, I. Kepler, R. Descartes, I. Newton formulated the basic principles of a new scientific picture of the world in a general form 3. Einstein's revolution (the turn of the 19th-20th centuries) It was determined by a series of discoveries (the discovery of the complex structure of the atom, the phenomenon of radioactivity, the discrete nature of electromagnetic radiation, etc.). As a result, the most important premise of the mechanistic picture of the world was undermined - the conviction that with the help of simple forces acting between unchanging objects it is possible to explain all natural phenomena

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The main problem of chemistry is the production of substances with given properties. Inorganic organic chemistry studies the properties of chemical elements and their simple compounds: alkalis, acids, salts; studies complex carbon-based compounds - polymers, including those created by man: gases, alcohols, fats, sugars

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1. The period of alchemy - from antiquity to the 16th century. AD Characterized by the search for the philosopher's stone, the elixir of longevity, alkahest (universal solvent) 2. The period during the 16th - 18th centuries The theories of Paracelsus, the theory of gases of Boyle, Cavendish and others, the theory of phlogiston by G. Stahl and the theory of chemical elements of Lavoisier were created. Applied chemistry was improved, associated with the development of metallurgy, glass and porcelain production, the art of distilling liquids, etc. By the end of the 18th century, chemistry was strengthened as a science independent of other natural sciences.

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3. The first sixty years of the 19th century are characterized by the emergence and development of Dalton’s atomic theory, Avogadro’s atomic-molecular theory and the formation of the basic concepts of chemistry: atom, molecule, etc. 4. From the 60s of the 19th century to the present day, a periodic classification of elements, the theory of aromatic compounds and stereochemistry, electronic theory of matter, etc. The range of constituent parts of chemistry has expanded, such as inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, food chemistry, agrochemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, etc.

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"Alchemy" is an Arabized Greek word, which is understood as "the juice of plants" 3 types: Greco-Egyptian Arabic Western European

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Empedocles' philosophical theory about the four elements of the Earth (water, air, earth, fire) According to it, various substances on Earth differ only in the nature of the combination of these elements. These four elements can be mixed into homogeneous substances The most important problem of alchemy was considered the search for the philosopher's stone The process of purifying gold was improved by cupellation (heating gold-rich ore with lead and saltpeter) Isolation of silver by alloying ore with lead The metallurgy of ordinary metals was developed The process of obtaining mercury was known

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Baghdad became the center of Arab alchemy. The Persian alchemist Jabir ibn Khayyam described ammonia, a technology for preparing white lead, a method for distilling vinegar to produce acetic acid, and developed the doctrine of numerology, linking Arabic letters with the names of substances. He suggested that the inner essence of each metal is always revealed by two of the six properties. For example, lead is cold and dry, gold is warm and wet. He associated flammability with sulfur, and “metallicity” with mercury, the “ideal metal.” According to the teachings of Jabir, dry vapors, condensing in the ground, give sulfur, wet vapors - mercury. Sulfur and mercury then combine in various ways to form seven metals: iron, tin, lead, copper, mercury, silver and gold. Thus, he laid the foundations of the mercury-sulfur theory. .

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Dominican monk Albert von Bolstedt (1193-1280) - Albert the Great described in detail the properties of arsenic, expressed the opinion that metals consist of mercury, sulfur, arsenic and ammonia. British philosopher of the 12th century. – Roger Bacon (about 1214 - after 1294). possible inventor of gunpowder; wrote about the extinction of substances without access to air, wrote about the ability of saltpeter to explode with burning coal. Spanish physician Arnaldo de Villanova (1240-1313) and Raymond Lullia (1235-1313). attempts to obtain the philosopher's stone and gold (unsuccessfully), produced potassium bicarbonate. Italian alchemist Cardinal Giovanni Fidanza (1121-1274) - Bonaventura obtained a solution of ammonia in nitric acid. the most prominent of the alchemists was a Spaniard, lived in the 14th century - Gebera described sulfuric acid and how nitric acid is formed, noted the property of aqua regia to affect gold, which until then was considered unchangeable

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Vasily Valentin (XIV century) discovered sulfuric ether, hydrochloric acid, many compounds of arsenic and antimony, described methods for obtaining antimony and its medical use Theophrastus von Hohenheim (Paracelsus) (1493-1541), founder of iatrochemistry - medicinal chemistry, achieved some success in the fight with syphilis, was one of the first to develop drugs to combat mental disorders, and is credited with the discovery of ether.

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“Chemistry is a science that studies the properties and transformations of substances, accompanied by changes in their composition and structure.” Studies the nature and properties of various chemical bonds, the energetics of chemical reactions, the reactivity of substances, and the properties of catalysts. The basis of chemistry is a two-pronged problem - obtaining substances with given properties (human production activity is aimed at achieving this) and identifying ways to control the properties of a substance (scientific research work is aimed at realizing this task). This same problem is also the system-forming beginning of chemistry.

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1. Numerous independent scientific disciplines appear in chemistry (chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, thermochemistry, radiation chemistry, photochemistry, plasma chemistry, laser chemistry). 2. Chemistry is actively integrated with other sciences, which resulted in the emergence of biochemistry (studies chemical processes in living organisms), molecular biology, cosmochemistry (studies the chemical composition of matter in the Universe, its prevalence and distribution among individual cosmic bodies), geochemistry (patterns of behavior of chemical elements in the earth's crust), biogeochemistry (studies the processes of movement, distribution, dispersion and concentration of chemical elements in the biosphere with the participation of organisms. The founder of biogeochemistry is V.I. Vernadsky).

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3. Fundamentally new research methods appear in chemistry (X-ray structural analysis, mass spectroscopy, radio spectroscopy, etc.) Chemistry has contributed to the intensive development of some areas of human activity. For example, chemistry provided surgery with three main means, thanks to which modern operations became painless and generally possible: 1) the introduction into practice of ether anesthesia, and then other narcotic substances; 2) use of antiseptics to prevent infection; 3) obtaining new alloplastic materials-polymers that do not exist in nature.

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In chemistry, the majority of chemical compounds (96%) are organic compounds. They are based on 18 elements (only 6 of them are most widespread). The chemical bonds of these elements are strong (energy-intensive) and labile. Carbon, like no other element, meets these requirements. It combines chemical opposites, realizing their unity. In the development of chemistry there is a strictly natural, consistent emergence of conceptual systems. In this case, the newly emerging system relies on the previous one and includes it in a transformed form. Thus, the chemistry system is a single integrity of all chemical knowledge that appears and exists not separately from each other, but in close interconnection, complement each other and are combined into conceptual systems of knowledge that are in a hierarchy of relationships.

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The concept of a chemical element R. Boyle laid the foundation for the modern concept of a chemical element as a simple body that passes without change from the composition of one complex body to another. The founder of the systematic development of chemical knowledge was D.I. Mendeleev. In 1869, he discovered the periodic law and developed the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements, in which the main characteristics of elements are atomic weights. In modern understanding, the periodic law looks like this: “The properties of simple substances, as well as the forms and properties of compounds of elements, are periodically dependent on the magnitude of the charge of the atomic nucleus (ordinal number)”

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The arrangement of chemical elements in order of increasing atomic mass led to the identification of a periodic relationship: chemical properties are repeated every seven elements on the eighth. According to their chemical properties, 4 groups were distinguished: - metals: K, Mg, Na, Fe - very active, easily combine with other substances, forming salts and alkalis; - non-metals: S, Se, Si, Cl – significantly less active; they form acids in compounds; - gases: C, O, H, N – inactive in the molecular state, highly active in the atomic state; - inert gases: Ne, Ar, Cr – do not enter into chemical compounds with other substances.

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In connection with discoveries in nuclear physics, it became known that valence reflects the number of electrons in the last orbital, as well as the chemical activity of the elements: the fewer electrons in the last orbital, the more active they are: alkali and alkaline earth metals are 1-2 electrons that are weakly held by the nucleus and are easily lost by the atom. The more electrons in the last orbit, the more passive the chemical element: for example, copper, silver, gold are among the metals. Nonmetals with increasing valence tend to capture electrons from other elements. Inert gases have a valency of 8 and do not enter into chemical reactions. That is why they are also called “noble”.

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The most important feature of the basic problem of chemistry is that it has only four ways to solve the problem. The properties of a substance depend on four factors: 1) on the elemental and molecular composition of the substance; 2) on the structure of the molecules of the substance; 3) on the thermodynamic and kinetic conditions in which the substance is in the process of a chemical reaction; 4) on the level of chemical organization of the substance. The modern picture of chemical knowledge is explained from the perspective of four conceptual systems. The figure shows the successive emergence of new concepts in chemical science that built on previous advances.

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A chemical element is all atoms that have the same nuclear charge. A special variety of chemical elements are isotopes, in which the nuclei of atoms differ in the number of neutrons (therefore they have different atomic masses), but contain the same number of protons and therefore occupy the same place in the periodic table of elements. The term “isotope” was introduced in 1910 by the English radiochemist F. Soddy. There are stable (stable) and unstable (radioactive) isotopes. The greatest interest was generated by radioactive isotopes, which began to be widely used in nuclear energy, instrument making, and medicine. The chemical element phosphorus was the first to be discovered in 1669, then cobalt, nickel and others. The discovery of oxygen by the French chemist A.L. Lavoisier and the establishment of its role in the formation of various chemical compounds made it possible to abandon previous ideas about “fiery matter” (phlogiston). In the Periodic System D.I. Mendeleev had 62 elements, in the 1930s. it ended in uranium. In 1999, it was reported that element 114 had been discovered through physical synthesis of atomic nuclei

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At the beginning of the 19th century. J. Proust formulated the law of constancy of composition, according to which any chemical compound has a strictly defined, unchanged composition and thereby differs from mixtures. Proust's law was theoretically substantiated by J. Dalton in the law of multiple ratios. According to this law, the composition of any substance could be represented as a simple formula, and the equivalent components of the molecule - atoms designated by the corresponding symbols - could be replaced by other atoms. A chemical compound consists of one, two or more different chemical elements. With the discovery of the complex structure of the atom, the reasons for the connection of atoms interacting with each other became clear, which indicate the interaction of atomic electric charges, the carriers of which are electrons and atomic nuclei.

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A covalent bond occurs through the formation of electron pairs that belong equally to both atoms. An ionic bond is an electrostatic attraction between ions formed by the complete displacement of an electrical pair towards one of the atoms. A metallic bond is a bond between positive ions in crystals of metal atoms, formed by the attraction of electrons, but moving freely throughout the crystal.

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First half of the 19th century Scientists are convinced that the properties of substances and their qualitative diversity are determined not only by the composition of the elements, but also by the structure of their molecules. Hundreds of thousands of chemical compounds, the composition of which consists of several organogenic elements (carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus). Organogens are elements that form the basis of living systems. The biologically important components of living systems include 12 more elements: sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, iron, zinc, silicon, aluminum, chlorine, copper, cobalt, boron. Based on six organogens and about 20 other elements, nature has created about 8 million different chemical compounds that have been discovered to date. 96% of them are organic compounds.

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The emergence of structural chemistry meant that the opportunity arose for targeted qualitative transformation of substances, for creating a scheme for the synthesis of any chemical compounds. The foundations of structural chemistry were laid by J. Dalton, who showed that any chemical substance is a collection of molecules consisting of a certain number of atoms of one, two or three chemical elements. AND I. Berzelius put forward the idea that a molecule is not a simple pile of atoms, but a certain ordered structure of atoms interconnected by electrostatic forces. Butlerov, for the first time in the history of chemistry, drew attention to the energy disparity of different chemical bonds. This theory made it possible to construct structural formulas of any chemical compound, since it showed the mutual influence of atoms in the structure of the molecule, and through this explained the chemical activity of some substances and the passivity of others.

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The teaching is based on chemical thermodynamics and kinetics. The founder of this direction was the Russian chemist N.N. Semenov, founder of chemical physics. The most important task of chemists is the ability to control chemical processes, achieving the desired results. Methods for controlling chemical processes are divided into thermodynamic (affect the displacement of the chemical equilibrium of the reaction) and kinetic (affect the rate of the chemical reaction). French chemist Le Chatelier at the end of the 19th century. formulated the principle of equilibrium, i.e. a method of shifting equilibrium towards the formation of reaction products. Each reaction is reversible, but in practice the equilibrium shifts in one direction or another. This depends both on the nature of the reagents and on the process conditions. Reactions go through a number of successive steps that make up a complete reaction. The rate of the reaction depends on the conditions and nature of the substances entering it: concentration temperature catalysts

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Catalysis (1812 g) - acceleration of a chemical reaction in the presence of special substances - catalysts that interact with reagents, but are not consumed in the reaction and are not included in the final composition of the products. Types: heterogeneous catalysis - a chemical reaction of interaction of liquid or gaseous reagents on the surface of a solid catalyst; homogeneous catalysis - a chemical reaction in a gas mixture or in a liquid where the catalyst and reagents are dissolved; electrocatalysis - a reaction on the surface of an electrode in contact with a solution and under the influence of an electric current; photocatalysis - a reaction on the surface of a solid or in a liquid solution, stimulated by the energy of absorbed radiation. Application of catalysts: in the production of margarine, many food products, plant protection products

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The task of organic synthesis is to create substances with specific properties that do not exist in nature and have an almost unlimited lifespan. All artificial polymers practically do not degrade under natural conditions and do not lose their properties for 50-100 years. The only way to dispose of them is destruction: either burning or flooding. When hydrocarbons are burned, carbon dioxide is released - one of the main atmospheric pollutants, along with methane and chlorine-containing substances. It is she who is responsible for catastrophic processes in the atmosphere, which are expressed in the effect of climate change. New popular sources of energy XXI: bioethanol, electricity, solar energy, hydrogen and ordinary water.

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Bioethanol is a renewable fuel. Ethanol can be produced in a variety of ways. For example, from grain crops: corn, wheat, barley and root crops - from potatoes, sugar beets, etc. The difficulty is that this is not a completely cost-effective source of energy: additional territory and water are needed for its development. In addition, the production of ethanol for technical purposes is a threat to food security on the planet. Another popular area of ​​research into alternative energy sources is the possibility of using the energy of our star. In 2009, at the annual automobile exhibition and fair, Japanese automakers demonstrated cars that operate based on the energy of the splitting of water molecules. The energy from the synthesis of water from hydrogen and oxygen molecules is accompanied by the release of energy that is used in engines.

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Applied chemistry offers new materials that can replace metals, cotton, linen, silk, and wood. The French found a way to produce paper from sugar production waste. The durability of plastic and synthetic materials in this case is a blessing, salvation from man-made disasters. Silicone, which has been successfully used in plastic surgery and cosmetology for a long time, was used by Japanese engineers to replace the metal body of a car. Cars do not deform, people do not suffer in accidents. Dederon, lycra, elastane are materials that are actively used in the light, textile, and hosiery industries. Hybrid fabrics that contain molecules of natural materials: linen, cotton and synthetic materials such as elastane are very popular. Artificial silks, artificial furs, artificial leathers are all ways to reduce anthropogenic pressure on animal and plant species. Organic synthesis and applied chemistry opens up a wide way for replacing the natural with artificial, reducing industrial pressure on the environment.

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The issue of recycling plastics, solid industrial and household waste is being resolved by improving roads. In the 1980s The first biodegradable plastics were invented and synthesized. Canadian chemist James Guiller, horrified by the piles of empty plastic bottles scattered along Italian roads, thought about the possibility of their destruction under natural conditions and in a short time. Guiller synthesized the first environmentally friendly plastic - biopal, which is decomposed by bacteria living in the soil. In the 90s Chemists began searching for technologies to move away from traditional raw materials for the production of plastics - petroleum products. In the 21st century A catalyst has finally been found that makes it possible to create plastic from orange peels and carbon dioxide. It was synthesized on the basis of limonin, an organic substance found in citrus fruits. The plastic is called polylimonin carbonate. Outwardly, it looks like foam plastic, and its qualities are not inferior to those of traditional plastics

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Creation of artificial materials based on nanotechnology. The root “nano” is translated from ancient Greek as “baby”, “dwarf”. “Nanotechnologies are ways of manipulating matter at the atomic and molecular level, as a result of which it acquires fundamentally new, unique chemical, physical and biological properties.” One of the experiments on nanomanipulation dates back to the 9th century. This is the invention of the famous Damascus steel, which was irreplaceable in the fierce battles of the Middle Ages. Today, nanofabrication is busy creating ultra-thin, ultra-strong materials that can be used on our planet and in outer space. The leaders in the creation of nanomaterials are the USA and Europe.

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Advances in the synthesis of nanomaterials by Russian scientists Nanostructured composite materials for the manufacture of high-quality harps, which are much cheaper to produce than traditional musical instruments. It is very possible that the precious violins created by the skilled hands of Guarneri and Stradivari also have something to do with nanomanufacturing. Silicon-based radio shielding and radiation shielding materials, which reflect harmful radiation and can be used to protect military equipment, shield more than 99% of electromagnetic radiation. Nanodiamonds. These are artificial materials containing diamonds - hard, resistant to corrosion and wear. They can be used in the oil and metallurgical industries for drilling wells and cutting metal. Nanodiamonds are added to cutting fluids as catalysts for chemical reactions.

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CONCLUSIONS Chemical science at its highest evolutionary level deepens our understanding of the world. The concepts of evolutionary chemistry, including chemical evolution on Earth, self-organization and self-improvement of chemical processes, and the transition from chemical evolution to biogenesis, are a convincing argument confirming the scientific understanding of the origin of life in the Universe. Chemical evolution on Earth has created all the prerequisites for the emergence of living things from inanimate nature. Life in all its diversity arose spontaneously on Earth from inanimate matter; it has survived and functioned for billions of years. Life depends entirely on maintaining the appropriate conditions for its functioning. And this largely depends on the person himself.

(structural levels of organization of matter from the point of view of chemistry).

Chemistry is one of the branches of natural science, the subject of study of which is chemical elements (atoms), the simple and complex substances (molecules) they form, their transformations and the laws to which these transformations are subject. By definition D.I. Mendeleev (1871), “chemistry in its modern state can be called the study of elements.” The origin of the word "chemistry" is not completely clear. Many researchers believe that it comes from the ancient name of Egypt - Chemia (Greek Chemía, found in Plutarch), which is derived from "hem" or "hame" - black and means "science of the black earth" (Egypt), "Egyptian science" .

Modern chemistry is closely connected both with other sciences and with all branches of the national economy. The qualitative feature of the chemical form of motion of matter and its transitions into other forms of motion determines the versatility of chemical science and its connections with areas of knowledge that study both lower and higher forms of motion. Knowledge of the chemical form of the movement of matter enriches the general teaching about the development of nature, the evolution of matter in the Universe, and contributes to the formation of an integral materialistic picture of the world. The contact of chemistry with other sciences gives rise to specific areas of their mutual penetration. Thus, the areas of transition between chemistry and physics are represented by physical chemistry and chemical physics. Between chemistry and biology, chemistry and geology, special border areas arose - geochemistry, biochemistry, biogeochemistry, molecular biology. The most important laws of chemistry are formulated in mathematical language, and theoretical chemistry also cannot develop without mathematics. Chemistry has had and is influencing the development of philosophy and has itself been and is being influenced by it. Historically, two main branches of chemistry have developed: inorganic chemistry, which studies primarily chemical elements and the simple and complex substances they form (except for carbon compounds), and organic chemistry, the subject of which is the study of carbon compounds with other elements (organic substances). Until the end of the 18th century. the terms “inorganic chemistry” and “organic chemistry” indicated only from which “kingdom” of nature (mineral, plant or animal) certain compounds were obtained. Since the 19th century. these terms came to indicate the presence or absence of carbon in a given substance. Then they acquired a new, broader meaning. Inorganic chemistry comes into contact primarily with geochemistry and then with mineralogy and geology, i.e. with the sciences of inorganic nature. Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry that studies a variety of carbon compounds up to the most complex biopolymer substances; through organic and bioorganic chemistry Chemistry borders on biochemistry and then on biology, i.e. with the totality of sciences about living nature. At the interface between inorganic and organic chemistry is the field of organoelement compounds. In chemistry, ideas about the structural levels of organization of matter gradually formed. The complication of a substance, starting from the lowest, atomic, goes through the stages of molecular, macromolecular, or high-molecular compounds (polymer), then intermolecular (complex, clathrate, catenane), finally, diverse macrostructures (crystal, micelle) up to indefinite non-stoichiometric formations. Gradually, corresponding disciplines emerged and became isolated: chemistry of complex compounds, polymers, crystal chemistry, studies of dispersed systems and surface phenomena, alloys, etc.

The study of chemical objects and phenomena by physical methods, the establishment of patterns of chemical transformations, based on the general principles of physics, lies at the basis of physical chemistry. This area of ​​chemistry includes a number of largely independent disciplines: chemical thermodynamics, chemical kinetics, electrochemistry, colloid chemistry, quantum chemistry and the study of the structure and properties of molecules, ions, radicals, radiation chemistry, photochemistry, studies of catalysis, chemical equilibria, solutions etc. Analytical chemistry has acquired an independent character, the methods of which are widely used in all areas of chemistry and the chemical industry. In the areas of practical application of chemistry, such sciences and scientific disciplines as chemical technology with its many branches, metallurgy, agricultural chemistry, medicinal chemistry, forensic chemistry, etc. arose.

The external world, which exists independently of man and his consciousness, represents various types of movement of matter. Matter exists in perpetual motion, the measure of which is energy. The most studied forms of the existence of matter are substance and field. To a lesser extent, science has penetrated into the essence of vacuum and information as possible forms of existence of material objects.

Matter is understood as a stable collection of particles (atoms, molecules, etc.) with a rest mass. The field is considered as a material medium that ensures the interaction of particles. Modern science believes that the field is a stream of quanta that do not have a rest mass.

The material bodies surrounding humans consist of various substances. In this case, bodies are called objects of the real world that have a rest mass and occupy a certain volume of space.

Each body has its own physical parameters and properties. And the substances from which they consist have chemical and physical properties. Physical properties include states of aggregation of a substance, density, solubility, temperature, color, taste, smell, etc.

There are solid, liquid, gaseous and plasma states of matter. Under normal conditions (temperature 20 degrees Celsius, pressure 1 atmosphere), various substances are in different states of aggregation. For example: sucrose, sodium chloride (salt), sulfur are solids; water, benzene, sulfuric acid – liquids; oxygen, carbon dioxide, methane are gases.

The main task of chemistry as a science is to identify and describe those properties of a substance that make it possible to transform one substance into another based on chemical reactions.

Chemical transformations are a special form of movement of matter, which is caused by the interaction of atoms, leading to the formation of molecules, associates and aggregates.

From the point of view of chemical organization, the atom is the starting level in the overall structure of matter.

Chemistry, therefore, studies a special “chemical” form of motion of matter, a characteristic feature of which is the qualitative transformation of matter.

Chemistry is a science that studies the transformation of some substances into others, accompanied by changes in their composition and structure, and also studies the mutual transitions between these processes.

The term "natural science" means knowledge about nature or natural history. The study of nature began with natural philosophy (“natural science” translated from German “naturphilosophie”; and translated from Latin – “natura” - nature, “Sophia” - wisdom).

In the course of the development of each science, including chemistry, the mathematical apparatus and conceptual apparatus of theories developed, and the experimental base and experimental technique were improved. As a result, complete differentiation arose in the subjects of study of various natural sciences. Chemistry mainly studies the atomic and molecular level of organization of matter, which is presented in Fig. 8.1.

Rice. 8.1. Levels of matter studied by chemical science

Basic concepts and laws of chemistry

The basis of modern natural science is the principle of conservation of matter, motion and energy. Formulated by M.V. Lomonosov in 1748. This principle has become firmly established in chemical science. In 1756 M.V. Lomonosov, studying chemical processes, discovered the constancy of the total mass of substances participating in a chemical reaction. This discovery became the most important law of chemistry - the law of conservation and relationship between mass and energy. In the modern interpretation, it is formulated as follows: the mass of substances that entered into a chemical reaction is equal to the mass of substances formed as a result of the reaction.

In 1774, the famous French chemist A. Lavoisier supplemented the law of conservation of mass with ideas about the invariability of the masses of each substance participating in the reaction.

In 1760 M.V. Lomonosov formulated the law of conservation of energy: energy does not arise from nothing and does not disappear without a trace, it transforms from one type to another. The German scientist R. Mayer experimentally confirmed this law in 1842. And the English scientist Joule established the equivalence of various types of energy and work (1 cal = 4.2 J). For chemical reactions, this law is formulated as follows: the energy of the system, including the substances that entered into the reaction, is equal to the energy of the system, including the substances formed as a result of the reaction.

The law of constancy of composition was discovered by the French scientist J. Proust (1801): every chemically pure individual substance always has the same quantitative composition, regardless of the method of its preparation. In other words, no matter how water is obtained, during the combustion of hydrogen or during the decomposition of calcium hydroxide (Ca (OH)2), the ratio of the masses of hydrogen and oxygen in it is 1:8.

In 1803 J. Dalton (English physicist and chemist) discovered the law of multiple ratios, according to which, if two elements form several compounds with each other, then the masses of one of the elements per the same mass of the other are related to each other as small integers. This law is a confirmation of atomistic ideas about the structure of matter. If elements combine in multiple ratios, then the chemical compounds are distinguished by whole atoms, which represent the smallest amount of the element that entered into the connection.

The most important discovery of chemistry in the 19th century is Avogadro's law. As a result of quantitative studies of reactions between gases, the French physicist J.L. Gay-Lussac established that the volumes of reacting gases relate to each other and to the volumes of the resulting gaseous products as small integers. An explanation for this fact is given by Avogadro's law (discovered by the Italian chemist A. Avogadro in 1811): equal volumes of any gases taken at the same temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules.

The law of equivalents is often used in chemical calculations. From the law of constancy of composition it follows that the interaction of elements with each other occurs in strictly defined (equivalent) ratios. Therefore, the term equivalent has established itself as a basic one in chemical science. The equivalent of an element is the amount of it that combines with one mole of hydrogen or replaces the same number of hydrogen atoms in chemical reactions. The mass of one equivalent of a chemical element is called its equivalent mass. The concepts of equivalents and equivalent masses also apply to complex substances. An equivalent of a complex substance is such an amount of it that reacts without a residue with one equivalent of hydrogen or with one equivalent of any other substance. The formulation of the law of equivalents was given by Richter at the end of the 18th century: all substances react with each other in quantities proportional to their equivalents. Another formulation of this law states: the masses (volumes) of substances reacting with each other are proportional to their equivalent masses (volumes). The mathematical notation of this law has the form: m 1: m 2 = E 1: E 2, where m 1 and m 2 are the masses of interacting substances, E 1 and E 2 are the equivalent masses of these substances, expressed in kg/mol.

The periodic law of D.I. plays an important role. Mendeleev, whose modern interpretation states that the order of arrangement and chemical properties of elements are determined by the charge of the nucleus.

The origins of chemical knowledge lie in ancient times. They are based on a person’s need to obtain the necessary substances for his life. The origin of the term “chemistry” has not yet been clarified, although there are several versions on this issue. According to one of them, this name comes from the Egyptian word “hemi”, which meant Egypt, as well as “black”. Historians of science also translate this term as “Egyptian art.” Thus, in this version, the word chemistry means the art of producing necessary substances, including the art of transforming ordinary metals into gold and silver or their alloys.

However, another explanation is currently more popular. The word "chemistry" comes from the Greek term "chemos", which can be translated as "plant juice". Therefore, “chemistry” means “the art of obtaining juices,” but the juice in question may also be molten metal. So chemistry can also mean “the art of metallurgy.”

The history of chemistry shows that its development occurred unevenly: periods of accumulation and systematization of data from empirical experiments and observations were replaced by periods of discovery and vigorous discussion of fundamental laws and theories. The sequential alternation of such periods allows us to divide the history of chemical science into several stages.

Main periods of development of chemistry

1. Alchemy period– from antiquity to the 16th century. AD. It is characterized by the search for the philosopher's stone, the elixir of longevity, and alkahest (the universal solvent). In addition, during the alchemical period, almost all cultures practiced the “transformation” of base metals into gold or silver, but all these “transformations” were carried out in very different ways among each people.

2. The period of origin of scientific chemistry, which lasted during the 16th - 18th centuries. At this stage, the theories of Paracelsus, the theories of gases of Boyle, Cavendish and others, the theory of phlogiston by G. Stahl and, finally, the theory of chemical elements by Lavoisier were created. During this period, applied chemistry was improved, associated with the development of metallurgy, glass and porcelain production, the art of distillation of liquids, etc. By the end of the 18th century, chemistry was strengthened as a science independent of other natural sciences.

3. The period of discovery of the basic laws of chemistry covers the first sixty years of the 19th century and is characterized by the emergence and development of Dalton’s atomic theory, Avogadro’s atomic-molecular theory, Berzelius’s establishment of the atomic weights of elements and the formation of the basic concepts of chemistry: atom, molecule, etc.

4. Modern period lasts from the 60s of the 19th century to the present day. This is the most fruitful period in the development of chemistry, since in a little over 100 years the periodic classification of elements, the theory of valence, the theory of aromatic compounds and stereochemistry, Arrhenius's theory of electrolytic dissociation, the electronic theory of matter, etc. were developed.

At the same time, the range of chemical research expanded significantly during this period. Such components of chemistry as inorganic chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, pharmaceutical chemistry, food chemistry, agricultural chemistry, geochemistry, biochemistry, etc., acquired the status of independent sciences and their own theoretical basis.

Alchemy period

Historically alchemy developed as secret, mystical knowledge aimed at searching for the philosopher's stone, which transforms metals into gold and silver, and the elixir of longevity. During its centuries-old history, alchemy solved many practical problems related to the production of substances and laid the foundation for the creation of scientific chemistry.

Alchemy reached its highest development in three main types:

· Greco-Egyptian;

· Arabic;

· Western European.

The birthplace of alchemy is Egypt. Even in ancient times, methods for obtaining metals and alloys used for the production of coins, weapons, and jewelry were known there. This knowledge was kept secret and was the property of a limited circle of priests. The increasing demand for gold pushed metallurgists to search for ways to transform (transmutate) base metals (iron, lead, copper, etc.) into gold. The alchemical nature of ancient metallurgy connected it with astrology and magic. Each metal had an astrological connection with its corresponding planet. The pursuit of the philosopher's stone allowed us to deepen and expand knowledge about chemical processes. Metallurgy developed, and processes for refining gold and silver were improved. However, during the reign of Emperor Diocletian in Ancient Rome, alchemy began to be persecuted. The possibility of obtaining cheap gold frightened the emperor and, on his orders, all works on alchemy were destroyed. Christianity played a significant role in the prohibition of alchemy, which viewed it as a devilish craft.

After the Arab conquest of Egypt in the 7th century. n. e. alchemy began to develop in Arab countries. The most prominent Arab alchemist was Jabir ibn Khayyam, known in Europe as Geber. He described ammonia, the technology for preparing white lead, and the method of distilling vinegar to produce acetic acid. Jabir's fundamental idea was the theory of the formation of all seven metals known at that time from a mixture of mercury and sulfur as two main components. This idea anticipated the division of simple substances into metals and non-metals.

The development of Arab alchemy followed two parallel paths. Some alchemists were engaged in the transmutation of metals into gold, others were looking for the elixir of life, which gave immortality.

The appearance of alchemy in Western European countries became possible thanks to the Crusades. Then the Europeans borrowed scientific and practical knowledge from the Arabs, among which was alchemy. European alchemy came under the auspices of astrology and therefore acquired the character of a secret science. The name of the most outstanding medieval Western European alchemist remains unknown; it is only known that he was a Spaniard and lived in the 14th century. He was the first to describe sulfuric acid, the process of formation of nitric acid, and aqua regia. The undoubted merit of European alchemy was the study and production of mineral acids, salts, alcohol, phosphorus, etc. Alchemists created chemical equipment, developed various chemical operations: heating over direct fire, a water bath, calcination, distillation, sublimation, evaporation, filtering, crystallization, etc. Thus, appropriate conditions were prepared for the development of chemical science.

2. The period of the birth of chemical science covers three centuries: from the 16th to the 19th centuries. The conditions for the formation of chemistry as a science were:

Ø renewal of European culture;

Ø the need for new types of industrial production;

Ø discovery of the New World;

Ø expansion of trade relations.

Having separated from the old alchemy, chemistry acquired greater freedom of research and established itself as a single independent science.

In the 16th century Alchemy was replaced by a new direction that dealt with the preparation of medicines. This direction was called iatrochemistry . The founder of iatrochemistry was a Swiss scientist Theophrastus Bombast von Hohenheim, known in science as Paracelsus.

Iatrochemistry expressed the desire to combine medicine with chemistry, overestimating the role of chemical transformations in the body and attributing to certain chemical compounds the ability to eliminate imbalances in the body. Paracelsus firmly believed that if the human body consists of special substances, then the changes occurring in them should cause diseases that can be cured only by using drugs that restore normal chemical balance. Before Paracelsus, mainly herbal medicines were used as medicines, but he relied only on the effectiveness of medicines made from minerals and therefore sought to create medicines of this type.

In his chemical research, Paracelsus borrowed from the alchemical tradition the doctrine of the three main components of matter - mercury, sulfur and salt, which correspond to the basic properties of matter: volatility, flammability and hardness. These three elements form the basis of the macrocosm (universe), but also apply to the microcosm (man), consisting of spirit, soul and body. Determining the causes of diseases, Paracelsus argued that fever and plague occur from excess sulfur in the body, excess mercury causes paralysis, and excess salt can cause indigestion and dropsy. In the same way, he attributed the causes of many other diseases to an excess or deficiency of these three basic elements.

In preserving human health, Paracelsus attached great importance to chemistry, as he proceeded from the observation that medicine rests on four pillars, namely philosophy, astrology, chemistry and virtue. Chemistry must develop in harmony with medicine, because this union will lead to the progress of both sciences.

Iatrochemistry brought significant benefits to chemistry, as it contributed to its liberation from the influence of alchemy and significantly expanded knowledge about vital compounds, thereby having a beneficial effect on pharmacy. But at the same time, iatrochemistry was also an obstacle to the development of chemistry, because it narrowed the field of its research. For this reason, in the 17th and 18th centuries. a number of researchers abandoned the principles of iatrochemistry and chose a different path for their research, introducing chemistry into life and putting it at the service of man.

It was these researchers who, with their discoveries, contributed to the creation of the first scientific chemical theories.

In the 17th century, in the age of rapid development of mechanics, in connection with the invention of the steam engine, chemistry became interested in the combustion process. The result of these studies was phlogiston theory, the founder of which was a German chemist and doctor Georg Stahl.

Phlogiston theory

Long before the 18th century, Greek and Western alchemists tried to answer these questions: why do some objects burn while others do not? What is the combustion process?

According to the ancient Greeks, everything that can burn contains the element of fire, which can be released under appropriate conditions. Alchemists adhered to approximately the same point of view, but believed that substances capable of combustion contained the element “sulphur”. In 1669 German chemist Johann Becher tried to give a rational explanation for the phenomenon of flammability. He proposed that solids consisted of three types of “earth,” and one of these types, which he called “fat earth,” served as a flammable substance. All these explanations did not answer the question about the essence of the combustion process, but they became the starting point for the creation of a unified theory, known as the phlogiston theory.

Stahl, instead of Becher’s concept of “greasy earth,” introduced the concept of “phlogiston” - from the Greek “phlogistos” - combustible, flammable. The term “phlogiston” became widespread thanks to the work of Stahl himself and because his theory combined numerous information about combustion and calcination.

The phlogiston theory is based on the belief that all combustible substances are rich in a special combustible substance - phlogiston, and the more phlogiston a given body contains, the more capable it is of combustion. What remains after the combustion process is completed does not contain phlogiston and therefore cannot burn. Stahl argues that the melting of metals is similar to the burning of wood. Metals, in his opinion, also contain phlogiston, but when they lose it, they turn into lime, rust or scale. However, if phlogiston is again added to these residues, then metals can again be obtained. When these substances are heated with coal, the metal is “reborn”.

This understanding of the melting process made it possible to provide an acceptable explanation for the process of converting ores into metals - the first theoretical discovery in the field of chemistry.

Stahl's phlogiston theory met with sharp criticism at first, but quickly began to gain popularity in the second half of the 17th century. was accepted by chemists everywhere, as it made it possible to give clear answers to many questions. However, neither Stahl nor his followers were able to resolve one question. The fact is that most flammable substances (wood, paper, fat) largely disappeared when burned. The remaining ash and soot were much lighter than the original material. But chemists of the 18th century. this problem did not seem important, they did not yet realize the importance of accurate measurements, and they neglected the change in weight. The phlogiston theory explained the reasons for changes in the appearance and properties of substances, and changes in weight were unimportant.

The influence of A.L.’s ideas Lavoisier on the development of chemical knowledge

By the end of the 18th century. In chemistry, a large amount of experimental data had been accumulated, which needed to be systematized within the framework of a unified theory. The creator of this theory was the French chemist Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier.

From the very beginning of his activity in the field of chemistry, Lavoisier understood the importance of accurate measurement of substances involved in chemical processes. The use of precise measurements in the study of chemical reactions allowed him to prove the inconsistency of old theories that hindered the development of chemistry.

The question of the nature of the combustion process interested all chemists of the 18th century, and Lavoisier also could not help but become interested in it. His numerous experiments on heating various substances in closed vessels made it possible to establish that, regardless of the nature of chemical processes and their products, the total weight of all substances participating in the reaction remains unchanged.

This allowed him to put forward a new theory of the formation of metals and ores. According to this theory, in the ore the metal is combined with gas. When ore is heated over charcoal, the charcoal absorbs gas from the ore and produces carbon dioxide and metal.

Thus, unlike Stahl, who believed that metal smelting involves the transition of phlogiston from charcoal to ore, Lavoisier imagines this process as the transition of gas from ore to coal. Lavoisier's idea made it possible to explain the reasons for the change in the weight of substances as a result of combustion.

Pondering the results of his experiments, Lavoisier came to the conclusion that if we take into account all the substances participating in the chemical reaction and all the resulting products, then there will never be any changes in weight. In other words, Lavoisier came to the conclusion that mass is never created or destroyed, but only passes from one substance to another. This conclusion, known today as the law of conservation of mass, became the basis for the entire development of chemistry in the 19th century.

However, Lavoisier himself was dissatisfied with the results obtained, since he did not understand why scale was formed when air was combined with metal, and gases were formed when air was combined with wood, and why not all of the air, but only about a fifth of it, was involved in these interactions?

Again, as a result of numerous experiments and experiments, Lavoisier came to the conclusion that air is not a simple substance, but a mixture of two gases. One fifth of the air, according to Lavoisier, is “dephlogisticated air,” which combines with burning and rusting objects, passes from ores to charcoal and is necessary for life. Lavoisier called this gas oxygen, that is, the gas that generates acids, since he mistakenly believed that oxygen is a component of all acids.

The second gas, comprising four-fifths of air (“phlogisticated air”), was recognized as a completely independent substance. This gas did not support combustion, and Lavoisier called it nitrogen - lifeless.

An important role in Lavoisier’s research was played by the results of the experiments of the English physicist Cavendish, who proved that gases formed during combustion condense into a liquid, which, as tests showed, is just water.

The importance of this discovery was enormous, as it turned out that water is not a simple substance, but a product of the combination of two gases.

Lavoisier called the gas released during combustion hydrogen (“forming water”) and noted that hydrogen burns by combining with oxygen, and therefore water is a compound of hydrogen and oxygen.

Lavoisier's new theories entailed a complete rationalization of chemistry. All mysterious elements were finally dealt with. From that time on, chemists became interested only in those substances that could be weighed or measured in some other way.

History of chemistry: alchemy; the period of the unification of chemistry (iatrochemistry, pneumatic chemistry, the phlogiston theory and its opponents, the period of quantitative laws (atomic chemistry)); structuring modern chemical knowledge.

Substance and element. Chemical systems. Energy of chemical processes. Physical bond and chemical reaction. Approaches to the classification of chemical reactions. The rate of a chemical reaction.

Periodic table of elements by D. Mendeleev.

Chemistry of the Earth: geochemistry. Chemistry of life: biochemistry.

Application of chemical knowledge in industry, agriculture, medicine.

Module 3 Wildlife Sciences

Topic 6. Specifics of a biological object and the problem of the origin of life

Specificity of living nature. Concepts of chaos and order. Unity of living and nonliving. Boundaries of life. The phenomenon of life and its interpretation.

Approaches to identifying the specifics of living things: substrate, energy, information. Approaches to defining life: monoattributive, polyattributive.

Specificity and structure of biological knowledge. Tasks of modern biology: solving the problem of the emergence of a biological object, the systemic organization of living things, the evolution of a biological object.

Methodological significance of the principle of historicism in solving the problem of the origin of life. Historical extrapolation.

Evolution of concepts of the origin of life. Biogenesis and abiogenesis. The concept of spontaneous generation of life. Experiments by L. Pasteur. The concept of panspermia and its evolution (S. Arrhenius, V.I. Vernadsky, Hoaldane, Crick). Substrate concept of the origin of life.

Topic 7. Systematic nature of living things and the problem of development of the organic world

The principle of consistency in the study of living things. Polemics of mechanistic and vitalistic trends in biology. Features of living systems: evolutionism, irritability, availability and use of information, self-government, etc.

Criteria for identifying levels of organization of living things. Orderliness of a biological object: spatial, functional, temporal aspects. Levels of organization of living things: the cell and its components, the organism and its properties; species, biogeocenosis.

The origin of the idea of ​​​​the development of living nature in ancient natural philosophy. Naive transformism. Creationism. Systematization of material from botany and zoology. The first taxonomic classifications.

The evolutionary doctrine of Charles Darwin and the approval of the idea of ​​development in biology. Driving forces and factors of evolution. The concepts of “heredity”, “variability”, “natural selection”. Experimental study of individual factors of evolution. Genetics and evolution. Synthetic theory of evolution.

The problem of identifying systemic units of evolution: organism-centric and population approaches. Phylogeny and ontogeny. The problem of managing the evolutionary process.

Topic 8. The problem of the origin and essence of ideal processes

Concept and properties of cybernetic systems. The main stages of the cephalization process. An advanced reflection of reality. Irritability, sensitivity, psyche.

Properties of mental reflection of reality: purposefulness, integrity, subjectivity, objectivity, selectivity, experience, regulation.

Consciousness and its structure. Differences between human consciousness and the psyche of animals.

Plan

1. Conceptual systems of chemical knowledge.

2. Chemical organization of matter.

3. The doctrine of chemical processes.

4. Evolutionary chemistry.

Topics of reports

1. Alchemy and chemistry.

2. Chemistry as science and production.

3. Chemistry in everyday life.

Task 1. Make a table “Classification of substances”.

Task 2. Make a table “Great chemists and their scientific discoveries.”

Security questions

1. What is the subject of studying chemistry?

2. What does chemistry study, and what are the main methods it uses?

3. What are the conceptual systems of chemical knowledge?

4. What is a chemical element?

5. What is called a simple and complex substance?

6. What relationship exists between atomic weight and the charge of the atomic nucleus?

7. List the main levels of chemical structures.

8. What does the dynamics of chemical processes depend on?

9. What substances are called catalysts?

10. What role does catalysis play in the evolution of chemical systems?

11. What is the difference between chemistry and alchemy?

Basic concepts and terms

Chemistry, structure of chemistry, substance, simple substance, complex substance, chemical element, molecule, compound, chemical reaction, catalysis, catalyst, chemical process, organic synthesis.

Test “Chemical picture of the world”

1. The origin of the name “chemistry” is associated with:

a) India; b) China; c) Sumer; d) Egypt.

2. The rate of a chemical reaction is most significantly affected by:

a) temperature; b) pressure; c) lighting; c) catalyst.

3. The following does not apply to the aggregate states of matter:

a) solid body; b) vacuum; c) plasma; d) gas.

4. A neutral elementary particle with spin 1/2, related to baryons, together with protons form the nuclei of atoms:

a) electron; b) neutron; c) photon; d) neutrino.

5. The type of matter that has rest mass is:

a) physical field; b) physical vacuum; c) substance; d) plasma.

6. The minimum particle of matter capable of independent existence is:

a) atom; b) electron; c) molecule; d) nucleon.

7. Substances that are formed by different chemical elements are called:

8. Substances formed by one type of chemical elements are called:

a) simple substances; c) chemical compounds;

b) complex substances; d) mixtures of substances.

9. Complex substances include:

a) salt; b) metals; c) air; d) water.

10. Complex substances include:

a) proteins; b) metals; c) air; d) water.

11. Simple substances include:

a) salt; b) metals; c) ozone; d) water.

12. A phenomenon that slows down chemical reactions is called:

a) inhalation; b) catalysis; c) inhibition; d) catabolism.

13. The theory of the chemical structure of organic compounds was first created by:

a) D. Mendeleev; b) A. Butlerov; c) M. Semenov; d) A. Berzelius.

14. The minimum number of atoms in a molecule is:

a) 1; b) 2; c) 3; d) 4.

15.Chemical element with atomic number - 1:

a) nitrogen; b) carbon; c) helium; d) hydrogen.

16. Of the organogens on Earth, the most common are:

a) carbon and oxygen; c) oxygen and nitrogen;

b) carbon and sulfur; d) oxygen and hydrogen.

17.Outside our planet, the most common chemical elements are:

a) the entire periodic table; c) hydrogen and helium;

b) metals and non-metals; d) helium and carbon

18.What is the first conceptual level in the development of chemistry as a science?

19.What is the second conceptual level in the development of chemistry as a science?

a) the study of chemical processes; c) evolutionary chemistry;

b) structural chemistry; d) the doctrine of composition.

20. Organogens include:

a) sodium; b) calcium; c) copper; d) phosphorus.

21. The following does not apply to organogens:

a) carbon; b) nitrogen; c) sodium; d) sulfur..

LESSON 10

Topic: Biological level of organization of matter

Plan

1. Structural levels of life.

2. The main differences between living and nonliving matter.

3. The origin of life on Earth.

4. Cytology is the science of cells.

5. Metabolism. Photosynthesis. Biosynthesis. Chemosynthesis.

6. Reproduction and development of organisms.

7. Basics of genetics.

Topics of reports

1. The theory of biochemical evolution.

2. Panspermia.

3. Model of the structure of the DNA molecule (D. Watson, F. Crick).

4. Human genome.

5. Cloning.

Tasks for independent work

Task 1. Explore different concepts about the origin of life.

Task 2. Study the structure of the cell and its chemical composition by filling out the table.

Cell structure

Security questions

1. What does biology study? What sections stand out in it?

2. Describe the general features of the development of biology in the 20th century.

3. What is life?

4. What definition of life did F. Engels give in the 19th century?

5. What are the essential features of a living thing?

6. Why is the problem of the origin of life one of the most difficult and interesting in science?

7. How does living things differ from non-living things?

8. How did Louis Pasteur prove that life cannot arise on its own now?

9. What are modern ideas about the origin of life?

10.What hypothesis about the origin of life on Earth was expressed by the academician

A. Oparin?

11.What are the stages of the origin of life, according to A. Oparin?

12.What are coacervates?

13.What is the essence of metabolism?

14.What is biosynthesis and how does it occur in the body?

15.What is the difference between synthesis and biosynthesis?

16.What is photosynthesis, and what is its significance on Earth?

17. How does the molecular structure of living systems differ from nonliving ones?

18.Can viruses be classified as living organisms? Justify your answer.

19. How do prokaryotic cells differ from eukaryotic cells?

20.What hypotheses exist about the origin of eukaryotes?

21.What role do amino acids play in a living organism?

22.What are DNA, RNA, amino acid, gene, chromosome, genotype, and how are these concepts interrelated?

23.Where is DNA located in a cell?

24. Due to what does the continuity of generations occur?

25.What reproduction levels do you know?

26.What forms of reproduction of a whole organism do you know?

27.What is the basis of sexual and asexual reproduction?

28.What does genetics study?

29.What biological concepts do you know? Describe them.

Basic concepts and terms

Biology, life, living matter, structural level of living matter, organism, bioelements, differences between living and nonliving, creationism, panspermia, biochemical evolution, coacervates, abiogenesis, symbiogenesis, prokaryotes, eukaryotes, organism, cytology, organelles, cell membrane, cytoplasm, mitochondria, plastids, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, lysosomes, chromosomes, cell nucleus, chemical composition of the cell, protein, amino acids, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, RNA, DNA, nucleotide, DNA code, ATP, viruses, metabolism, plastic metabolism, energy metabolism , metabolism, assimilation, dissimilation, synthesis, biosynthesis, matrix synthesis, photosynthesis, chemosynthesis, autotrophs, chemotrophs, phototrophs, heterotrophs, mixotrophs, reproduction, levels of reproduction, asexual reproduction, vegetative reproduction, sexual reproduction, gametes, mitosis, meiosis, ontogenesis, phylogenesis, parthenogenesis, postembryonic development, genetics, gene, genotype, genome, phenotype, heredity, variability, chromosomes, mutation, genetics of sex, dominance, recessiveness.