Carl Linnaeus believed in the creation of nature by God; proposed a system of plants and animals and introduced a system of dual naming; allowed the possibility of the emergence of species through crossing or under the influence of environmental conditions.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck expounded evolutionary ideas; considered the desire for perfection to be the driving force of evolution; asserted the inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Charles Darwin created an evolutionary theory based on the concepts of the struggle for existence and natural selection.

Prerequisites for the emergence of the teachings of Charles Darwin: the accumulation by that time of rich material on paleontology, geography, geology, biology; selection development; as well as the scientist’s own observations during his circumnavigation of the world on the Beagle ship.

Darwin's teaching boils down to this:

Each individual of a particular species has individuality (variability);

· personality traits (although not all) can be inherited (heredity);

individuals produce more descendants, than survives to puberty and the beginning of reproduction, that is, in nature there is a struggle for existence;

· the advantage in the struggle for existence remains with the most adapted individuals, who have a greater chance of leaving behind offspring (natural selection);

· it was in this way (as a result of natural selection) that the levels of organization of life and the emergence of species gradually became more complex.

Factors of evolution according to Charles Darwin are: heredity, variability, struggle for existence, natural selection.

Heredity- the ability of organisms to transmit their characteristics from generation to generation (features of structure, function, development).

Variability- the ability of organisms to acquire new characteristics.

Struggle for existence- the whole complex of relationships between organisms and environmental conditions: with inanimate nature ( abiotic factors) and with other organisms (biotic factors). The struggle for existence is not a “struggle” in the literal sense of the word; in fact, it is a survival strategy and a way of existing for an organism. There are intraspecific struggles, interspecific struggles and struggles with unfavorable abiotic environmental factors. Intraspecific struggle is the struggle between individuals of the same population. It is always very stressful, since individuals of the same species need the same resources. Interspecific struggle is the struggle between individuals of populations of different species. It occurs when species compete for the same resources, or when they are connected by a predator-prey relationship. The fight against unfavorable abiotic environmental factors is especially evident when environmental conditions deteriorate; intensifies intraspecific struggle. In the struggle for existence, the individuals most adapted to the given living conditions are identified. The struggle for existence leads to natural selection.

Natural selection- a process as a result of which predominantly individuals with hereditary changes that are useful under given conditions survive and leave behind offspring.

All biological and many other natural sciences were restructured on the basis of Darwinism.

Currently the most generally accepted is synthetic theory of evolution (STE). Comparative characteristics The main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and STE are given in Table 2.

Table 2

Comparative characteristics of the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin and the synthetic theory of evolution (STE)

The emergence of devices. Each adaptation is developed on the basis of hereditary variability in the process of struggle for existence and selection over a series of generations.

The adaptability of organisms to the environment is not absolute, but relative, since environmental conditions can change. Many facts prove this. For example, fish are perfectly adapted to aquatic environment habitat, but all these adaptations are completely unsuitable for other habitats.

Thales of Miletus(V century BC, Greece) was the first to try to find the common source of the origin of everything that exists. Thales considered water to be this common source, which gave rise to declare him the predecessor of modern researchers, who also believe that life originated at the bottom of the Ocean.

Anaximander. Fellow citizen and contemporary of Thales. He believed that the firmament was first covered with water and only gradually began to dry out. By this time, people who had previously lived in water and resembled fish appeared on its surface.

Anaximenes. Student of Anaximander. He believed that everything that exists came out of thin air. In particular, earth and water appeared from the air, their mixing formed silt, from which, under the influence of solar heat, plants, animals and people arose through spontaneous generation.

Heraclitus(end of the 6th - beginning of the 5th century BC). He considered movement to be the basis of the world: “Everything flows and nothing remains constant.” This basic idea could form the basis of a truly historical view of nature, but it remained undeveloped by Heraclitus.

Empedocles(483 – 423 BC). Everything that exists is based on the first four physical principles: fire, air, water and earth. These principles are governed by two forces: unifying - love and dividing - hatred. The struggle between these two forces led to the emergence of various combinations of living beings in the plant and animal kingdoms.

Democritus(460 – 370 BC). He compared the human body with the structure of other living organisms. Drew attention to the adaptation of individual organs to perform certain functions; however, he did not give an explanation for this orderliness and purposeful organization.

Anaxagoras. Contemporary of Democritus. He believed that the expedient arrangement of living beings is due to the presence of a reasonable plan, the source of which is the omnipotent spirit, or reason.

Plato(V-IV centuries BC). He expressed the idea of ​​the existence of two worlds: the world of things perceived by the senses, and the world of ideas perceived by the mind and thinking. Plato's doctrine of ideas influenced biology and formed the basis for the idea of ​​the ideal structure of living beings, to which their actual structure is only approaching.

Aristotle(384 – 322 BC) formulated the theory of continuous and gradual development of living things from non-living matter. Created an idea of ​​the “ladder of nature” in relation to the animal world. Organisms, in his opinion, differ from bodies of inanimate nature by the presence of a soul, which is the exhaustive cause of their vital properties. The most primitive - nourishing - soul is found in plants. Animals, in addition to a nourishing soul, also have a feeling soul, due to which they exhibit will and are capable of movement. In addition to the nourishing and feeling soul, man also has a thinking soul, capable of forming concepts and constructing generalizations. Having noted the features of differences and features of similarity, Aristotle did not see kinship or common origin in this similarity.

Paracelsus(1493 – 1541). The exponent of the biological ideas of the Renaissance was the physician Theophrastus von Hohenheim, known as Paracelsus. Along with ideas about vital juices having different compositions, and the doctrine of archaea - the supreme principle that controls all chemical processes in the body, he expressed the idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhereditary things passed on to children from father and mother. The same idea about the combination of hereditary things formed the basis of ideas about the emergence of various forms of plants and animals.

Leibniz(1646 – 1716). The basic idea is that all bodies are composed of particles - monads, which have individuality and vital properties. The most important vital property of monads is that each of them is endowed with power and therefore can act on its own, without needing external stimulation. The force that characterizes the monad is subject to the law of causality, but at the same time it acts expediently, carrying out mechanical movements of bodies and arranging them harmoniously. One of the most important is his law of continuity: all bodies of nature form a series of continuous transitions from one to another, without omissions or repetitions. Since monads, according to his ideas, neither arise nor are destroyed, then the development of organisms should be thought of as the development (evolution) of previous properties, and death - as the folding (involution) of these properties, their transition to a hidden state.

Charles Bonnet(1720 – 1793) is known for the development of the Leibnizian idea of ​​gradual transitions from one body of nature to another, expressed in the form of a ladder of creatures (ladder of bodies of nature), which are arranged according to the principle of decreasing height of organization (man - quadrupeds - plants - crystals, etc. ).

Georges Buffon(1707 – 1788) expressed the opinion that different types of animals have different origins and arose at different times. His merit is the establishment of connections between organisms and their habitat. The scientist recognized the influence external environment and inheritance of acquired characteristics.

Carl Linnaeus(1707 – 1778) first creator of an artificial system organic world. He took as the basis of his system view, which was defined as a set of individuals similar in structure that produce fertile offspring. He considered the species to be the elementary unit of living nature. He grouped closely related species into genera, genera into orders, and orders into classes. The classification was based on the principle of hierarchy (subordination). To designate the species, he used two Latin words: the first is the name of the genus, the second is the specific epithet. This principle of double nomenclature has been preserved in taxonomy to this day. Linnaeus systematized the vast material accumulated by his predecessors and described more than 8,000 species. His work served as a serious basis for further study and classification of living organisms. Contributions to science by Carl Linnaeus: 1) discovered about 1.5 thousand plant species. 2) described about 10 thousand species of plants and about 4.5 thousand animals. 3) developed short and clear definitions (diagnoses) of each group of organisms. 4) introduced binary nomenclature (“system of nature”, 1735). 5) developed principles for constructing a classification of living nature (“Philosophy of Botany”). 6) for the first time placed humans in the same order with monkeys on the basis of morphological similarity.

Georges Cuvier(1769 – 1832). A major specialist in the field of systematic zoology, comparative anatomy and paleontology, the foundations of which were laid by his works. He established that all the organs of an animal are parts of one integral system, and the structure of each organ naturally correlates with the structure of all others (the principle of correlation). Having convinced himself that fossil forms differ very sharply from living ones, and not finding transitional forms between one and the other, he came to the conclusion that animals are immutable. He is the author of the theory of catastrophes: the change in the Earth's population did not occur as a result of evolution, but due to geological disasters that destroyed the population of one or another part of the Earth, after which the devastated area was populated by new forms from other continents or God re-created new forms of animals.

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck(1744 – 1829). He put forward a theory about the variability of species. He argued that the diversity of animals and plants is the result historical development organic world - evolution, which he understood as stepwise development, the complication of the organization of living organisms from lower to higher forms and called “gradation”. He proposed a unique system of the organic world, arranging related groups in it in ascending order - from simple to more complex, in the form of a “ladder”. The fundamental difference between Lamarck's ladder and Bonnet's is that a number of living beings, according to Lamarck, change historically - lower forms, becoming more complex, turn into higher ones. In the book “Philosophy of Zoology,” Lamarck provided numerous evidence of the slow change in animal species through evolutionary means, and compiled the first genealogies of individual classes of the animal world (including humans) in the form of stages of progressive evolution. Lamarck took the position of inheritance of acquired characteristics (the influence of the external environment on organisms and the transmission of phenotypic characteristics to offspring). He put forward the concept of exercise and non-exercise of organs. He mistakenly believed that changes in the environment always cause useful changes in organisms, and he considered the internal desire of organisms to improve their organization to be the reason for the progress of living nature.

The development of evolutionary ideas in biology has a fairly long history. The consideration of questions of the evolution of the organic world began in ancient philosophy and continued for more than two thousand years until the first independent biological disciplines arose in the science of modern times. The main content of this period is the collection of information about the organic world, as well as the formation of two main points of view that explain the diversity of species in living nature.

The first of them arose on the basis of ancient dialectics, which affirmed the idea of ​​​​development and change in the surrounding world. Second

The heavenly point of view appeared along with the Christian worldview based on the ideas of creationism. At that time, the minds of many scientists were dominated by the idea that God created the entire world around us, including all types of life that have existed since then unchanged.

Throughout initial stage In the development of the evolutionary idea, there was a constant struggle between these two points of view, with the creationist version having a serious advantage. After all, transformist ideas about the spontaneous generation of living beings and the emergence of complex organisms through a random combination of individual organs, in which non-viable combinations die out and successful ones are preserved (Empedocles), the sudden transformation of species (Anaximenes), etc., are naive. cannot even be considered as a prototype of an evolutionary approach to the knowledge of living nature.

However, during this period a number of valuable ideas were expressed that were necessary for the establishment of the evolutionary approach. Among them, the conclusions of Aristotle were of particular importance, who in his work “On the Parts of Animals” noted that nature gradually moves from inanimate objects to plants, and then to animals, and this transition occurs continuously. Unfortunately, Aristotle did not speak about the development of nature in its modern understanding, but about the fact that at the same time a whole series of juxtaposed living forms coexist, deprived genetic connection among themselves. Therefore, first of all, his idea of ​​the “ladder of living beings” is valuable, showing the existence of organisms of varying degrees of complexity - the emergence of evolutionary theories would have been impossible without awareness of this fact.

Interest in biology increased noticeably during the era of the Great geographical discoveries. Intensive trade and the discovery of new lands expanded information about animals and plants. The need to organize rapidly accumulating knowledge led to the need to systematize it and the emergence of the first classifications of species, among which a special place belongs to the classification of K. Linnaeus. In his ideas about living nature, Linnaeus proceeded from the idea of ​​​​the immutability of species. But in the same XVIII century. other ideas appeared related to the recognition of not only gradation, but also gradual complication organic forms. These performances came to be called transformism, and many famous people belonged to this direction scientists of that time. All transformists recognized the variability of species of organisms under the influence of environmental changes, but most of them did not yet have a holistic and consistent concept of evolution.

History of evolutionary ideas. The significance of the works of C. Linnaeus, the teachings of J. B. Lamarck

Evolution– irreversible historical development of living nature.

2. Fill out the table.

History of the development of evolutionary ideas (until the twentieth century).

3. What are the strengths and weaknesses of C. Linnaeus’ system of the organic world?
Developed the first relatively successful artificial system of the organic world. He took the form as the basis of his system and considered it an elementary unit of living nature. He united closely related species into genera, genera into orders, and orders into classes. He introduced the principle of binary nomenclature into taxonomy.
The disadvantages of Linnaeus' system were that when classifying, he took into account only 1-2 characteristics (in plants - the number of stamens, in animals - the structure of the respiratory and circulatory system), not reflecting true kinship, so distant genera ended up in the same class, and close ones in different ones. Linnaeus considered species in nature to be unchangeable, created by the Creator.

4. Formulate the main provisions of the evolutionary theory of J. B. Lamarck.
Points of Lamarck's evolutionary theory:
The first organisms arose from inorganic nature through spontaneous generation. Their further development led to the complication of living beings.
All organisms have a desire for improvement, which was originally placed in them by God. This explains the mechanism of complication of living beings.
The process of spontaneous generation of life continues constantly, which explains the simultaneous presence in nature of both simple and more complex organisms.
The law of exercise and disuse of organs: constant use of an organ leads to its enhanced development, and disuse leads to weakening and disappearance.
The law of inheritance of acquired characteristics: changes that arise under the influence of constant exercise and lack of exercise of organs are inherited. This is how Lamarck believed that, for example, the long neck of the giraffe and the blindness of the mole were formed.
He considered the direct influence of the environment to be the main factor in evolution.

5. Why did contemporaries criticize J.B. Lamarck’s theory?
Lamarck mistakenly believed that changes in the environment always cause beneficial changes in organisms. In addition, he could not explain where the “desire for progress” comes from in organisms, and why the ability of organisms to respond expediently to external influences should be considered hereditary.
6. What progressive features do modern evolutionary scientists see in the theory of J. B. Lamarck?
In the book “Philosophy of Zoology” Lamarck suggested that during life each individual changes, adapts to environment. He argued that the diversity of animals and plants is the result of the historical development of the organic world - evolution, which he understood as stepwise development, the complication of the organization of living organisms from lower to higher forms. He proposed a unique system for organizing the world, arranging related groups in it in ascending order - from simple to more complex, in the form of a “ladder”.

Evolutionary doctrine C. Darwin

1. Give definitions of concepts.
Factors of evolution– according to Darwin, this is natural selection, the struggle for existence, mutational and combinative variability.
Artificial selection– the choice by a person of the most economically or decoratively valuable individuals of animals and plants in order to obtain from them offspring with the desired properties.

2. What aspects of the social and scientific environment of the beginning and mid-19th centuries contributed, in your opinion, to the development of evolutionary theory by Charles Darwin?
By the middle of the 20th century. a number of important generalizations and discoveries were made that contradicted creationist views and contributed to the strengthening and further development of the idea of ​​evolution, which created the scientific prerequisites for the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. This is the development of systematics, Lamarck's theory, Baer's discovery of the law of germinal similarity and the achievement of other scientists, the development of biogeography, ecology, comparative morphology, anatomy, discovery cell theory, as well as the development of selection and national economy.

3. Fill out the table.

Stages life path C. Darwin

4. Formulate the main provisions of the evolutionary teachings of Charles Darwin.
1. Organisms are changeable. It is difficult to find a property by which individuals belonging to this species, would be completely identical.
2. Differences between organisms are, at least partially, inherited.
3. Theoretically, plant and animal populations tend to reproduce in geometric progression, and theoretically any organism could fill the Earth very quickly. But this does not happen, since vital resources are limited, and in the struggle for existence the strongest survive.
4. As a result of the struggle for existence, natural selection occurs - individuals with properties useful in the given conditions survive. Survivors pass on these properties to their offspring, that is, these properties are fixed in a series of subsequent generations.

5. Fill out the table.

Comparative characteristics of the evolutionary theories of J. B. Lamarck and Charles Darwin

6. What is the significance of Charles Darwin’s evolutionary teachings for the development of biological science?
Darwin's teachings made it possible to harmonize the scattered knowledge about the laws that govern the organization of life on our planet. In the past century, Darwin's evolutionary doctrine was developed and concretized thanks to the creation chromosome theory heredity, the development of molecular genetic research, taxonomy, paleontology, ecology, embryology and many other areas of biology.

1. Define the concept.
Struggle for existence- this is one of the driving factors of evolution, along with natural selection and hereditary variability, a set of diverse and complex relationships that exist between organisms and environmental conditions.

2. Fill out the table.

The struggle for existence and its forms

3. Which form of struggle for existence is, in your opinion, the most intense? Explain your answer.
Intraspecific struggle is most acute, since the individuals have the same ecological niche. Organisms compete for limited resources - food, territorial resources, males of some animals compete with each other for fertilization of the female, as well as other resources. To reduce the severity of intraspecific struggle, organisms develop various adaptations - delimitation of individual areas, complex hierarchical relationships. In many species, organisms at different stages of development occupy different ecological niches, for example, coleopteran larvae live in soil, and dragonflies live in water, while adults inhabit ground-air environment. Intraspecific struggle leads to the death of less adapted individuals, thereby promoting natural selection.

Natural selection and its forms

1. Define the concept.
Natural selection– this is the selective reproduction of genotypes that best meet the current living conditions of the population. That is, the main evolutionary process, as a result of which in a population the number of individuals with maximum fitness (the most favorable traits) increases, while the number of individuals with unfavorable traits decreases.

2. Fill out the table.

3. What is the consequence of natural selection?
Changing the composition of the gene pool, removing from the population individuals whose properties do not provide advantages in the struggle for existence. The emergence of adaptations of organisms to environmental conditions.

4. What do you think is the creative role of natural selection?
The role of natural selection is not only the elimination of non-viable individuals. Its driving form preserves not the individual characteristics of the organism, but their entire complex, all the combinations of genes inherent in the organism. Selection creates adaptations and species by removing from the gene pool of a population genotypes that are ineffective from the point of view of survival. The result of its action are new species of organisms, new forms of life.