BRITISH EMPIRE(British Empire) - the largest empire in human history, during the period between the First and Second World Wars it occupied up to a quarter of the entire earth's landmass.

The composition of the empire, ruled from the mother country - Great Britain - was complex. It included dominions, colonies, protectorates and mandated (after the First World War) territories.

Dominions are countries with a large number of immigrants from Europe that have achieved relatively broad rights of self-government. North America, and later Australia and New Zealand, were the main destinations for emigration from Great Britain. A number of North American possessions in the second half. 18th century declared independence and formed the United States, and in the 19th century. Canada, Australia and New Zealand gradually pushed for increased self-government. At the imperial conference of 1926, it was decided to call them not colonies, but dominions with the status of self-government, although in fact Canada received these rights in 1867, the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901, New Zealand in 1907, the Union of South Africa in 1919, Newfoundland in 1917 (joined in 1949). part of Canada), Ireland (without the northern part - Ulster, which remained part of Great Britain) achieved similar rights in 1921.

In the colonies there were approx. 50 – the vast majority of the population lived British Empire. Among them, along with relatively small ones (such as the islands of the West Indies), there were also such large ones as the island of Ceylon. Each colony was governed by a governor general, who was appointed by the Ministry of Colonial Affairs. The governor appointed a legislative council of senior officials and representatives of the local population. The largest colonial possession, India, officially became part of the British Empire in 1858 (before that, it was ruled by the British East India Company for a century and a half). Since 1876, the British monarch (then Queen Victoria) began to be called the Emperor of India, and the Governor-General of India - the Viceroy. Viceroy's salary at the beginning of the 20th century. several times higher than the salary of the Prime Minister of Great Britain.

The nature of the administration of the protectorates and their degree of dependence on London varied. The degree of independence London allowed for the local feudal or tribal elite also varied. A system in which this elite was provided significant role, was called indirect control - in contrast to direct control, carried out by appointed officials.

Mandatory territories - former parts of the German and Ottoman empires - after the First World War were transferred by the League of Nations to the control of Great Britain on the basis of the so-called. mandate.

English conquests began in the 13th century. with the invasion of Ireland, and the creation of overseas possessions - with the capture of Newfoundland in 1583, which became Britain's first support base for conquests in the New World. The path to British colonization of America was opened by the defeat of the huge Spanish fleet - the Invincible Armada in 1588, the weakening of the naval power of Spain and then Portugal, and the transformation of England into a powerful maritime power. In 1607 the first English colony was founded in North America(Virginia) and the first English settlement on the American continent, Jamestown, was founded. In the 17th century English colonies arose in a number of areas in the east. coast of the North America; New Amsterdam, recaptured from the Dutch, was renamed New York.

Almost simultaneously, penetration into India began. In 1600, a group of London merchants founded the East India Company. By 1640, she had created a network of her trading posts not only in India, but also in Southeast Asia and Far East. In 1690 the company began to build the city of Calcutta. One of the results of the import of English industrial goods was the ruin of a number of local cultural industries.

The British Empire experienced its first crisis when it lost 13 of its colonies as a result of the British settlers' war for independence in North America (1775–1783). However, after the recognition of American independence (1783), tens of thousands of colonists moved to Canada, and the British presence there strengthened.

Soon English penetration into the coastal areas of New Zealand and Australia and the islands intensified Pacific Ocean. In 1788, the first English language arose in Australia. settlement - Port Jackson (future Sydney). Congress of Vienna 1814–1815, summing up Napoleonic wars, assigned to Great Britain the Cape Colony (South Africa), Malta, Ceylon and other territories captured in the end. 18 – beginning 19th centuries By Wednesday 19th century The conquest of India was basically completed, the colonization of Australia was carried out, in 1840 the English. colonialists arrived in New Zealand. The port of Singapore was founded in 1819. On Wednesday 19th century Unequal treaties were imposed on China; a number of Chinese ports were open to the English. trade, Great Britain captured Hong Kong Island.

During the period of the “colonial division of the world” (the last quarter of the 19th century), Great Britain captured Cyprus, established control over Egypt and the Suez Canal, completed the conquest of Burma, and established the actual. protectorate over Afghanistan, conquered vast territories in the Tropical and South Africa: Nigeria, Gold Coast (now Ghana), Sierra Leone, South. and Sev. Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia), Bechuanaland (Botswana), Basutoland (Lesotho), Swaziland, Uganda, Kenya. After the bloody Anglo-Boer War (1899–1902), she captured the Boer republics of the Transvaal (official name - South African Republic) and the Orange Free State and united them with her colonies - the Cape and Natal, creating the Union of South Africa (1910).

More and more conquests and the gigantic expansion of the empire became possible not only thanks to military and naval power and not only thanks to skillful diplomacy, but also because of the widespread confidence in Great Britain in the beneficialness of British influence for the peoples of other countries. The idea of ​​British messianism took deep roots - and not only in the minds of the ruling strata of the population. The names of those who spread British influence, from the "pioneers" - missionaries, travelers, otkhodniks, traders - to such "empire builders" as Cecil Rhodes, were surrounded by an aura of respect and romance. Those who, such as Rudyard Kipling, poeticized colonial policy also gained enormous popularity.

As a result of mass emigration in the 19th century. from Great Britain to Canada, New Zealand, Australia and the Union of South Africa, in these countries a multi-million “white”, mostly English-speaking population was created, and the role of these countries in the world economy and politics became increasingly significant. Their independence in domestic and foreign policy was strengthened by the decisions of the Imperial Conference (1926) and the Statute of Westminster (1931), according to which the unification of the mother country and dominions was called the “British Commonwealth of Nations”. Their economic ties secured by the creation of sterling blocks in 1931 and the Ottawa Agreements (1932) on imperial preferences.

As a result of the First World War, which was fought due to the desire of European powers to redistribute colonial possessions, Great Britain received a League of Nations mandate to govern parts of the collapsed German and Ottoman empires (Palestine, Iran, Transjordan, Tanganyika, part of Cameroon and part of Togo). The Union of South Africa received a mandate to govern South-West Africa (now Namibia), Australia - to part of New Guinea and the adjacent islands of Oceania, New Zealand - to the Western Islands. Samoa.

The anti-colonial war, which intensified in various parts of the British Empire during the First World War and especially after its end, forced Great Britain to recognize the independence of Afghanistan in 1919. Egypt's independence was recognized in 1922, and English independence was discontinued in 1930. mandate to govern Iraq, although both countries remained under British rule.

The apparent collapse of the British Empire came after the Second World War. And although Churchill proclaimed that he did not become Prime Minister of the British Empire in order to preside over its liquidation, he still, at least during his second premiership, had to find himself in this role. For the first time post-war years Many attempts were made to preserve the British Empire both through maneuvering and colonial wars (in Malaya, Kenya and other countries), but they all failed. In 1947, Britain was forced to grant independence to its largest colonial possession: India. At the same time, the country was divided along regional lines into two parts: India and Pakistan. Independence was declared by Transjordan (1946), Burma and Ceylon (1948). In 1947 Gen. The UN Assembly decided to end the British. mandate for Palestine and the creation of two states on its territory: Jewish and Arab. The independence of Sudan was proclaimed in 1956, and Malaya in 1957. The first of the British possessions in Tropical Africa became (1957) the independent state of the Gold Coast, taking the name Ghana. In 1960, British Prime Minister Henry Macmillan, in a speech in Cape Town, essentially recognized the inevitability of further anti-colonial achievements, calling it “the wind of change.”

1960 went down in history as the “Year of Africa”: 17 African countries declared their independence, among them the largest British possession - Nigeria - and British Somaliland, which, united with the part of Somalia under Italian rule, created the Republic of Somalia. Then, listing only the most important milestones: 1961 - Sierra Leone, Kuwait, Tanganyika, 1962 - Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Uganda; 1963 - Zanzibar (in 1964, united with Tanganyika, formed the Republic of Tanzania), Kenya, 1964 - Nyasaland (became the Republic of Malawi), Northern Rhodesia (became the Republic of Zambia), Malta; 1965 – Gambia, Maldives; 1966 – Brit. Guiana (became the Republic of Guyana), Basutoland (Lesotho), Barbados; 1967 – Aden (Yemen); 1968 – Mauritius, Swaziland; 1970 – Tonga, 1970 – Fiji; 1980 – Southern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe); 1990 – Namibia; 1997 – Hong Kong became part of China. In 1960, the Union of South Africa proclaimed itself the Republic of South Africa and then withdrew from the Commonwealth, but after the elimination of the apartheid regime (apartheid) and the transfer of power to the black majority (1994), it was again accepted into its composition.

By the end of the last century, the Commonwealth itself had also undergone fundamental changes. After the declaration of independence by India, Pakistan and Ceylon (since 1972 - Sri Lanka) and their entry into the Commonwealth (1948), it became the union of not only the metropolis and the “old” dominions, but all states that arose within the British Empire. The “British” was removed from the name of the British Commonwealth of Nations, and later it became common to call it simply: “Commonwealth”. Relations between members of the Commonwealth also underwent many changes, even to the point of military clashes (the largest were between India and Pakistan). However, economic, cultural (and linguistic) ties developed over many generations of the British Empire kept the vast majority of these countries from leaving the Commonwealth. In the beginning 21st century it had 54 members: 3 in Europe, 13 in America, 8 in Asia, 19 in Africa. Mozambique, which had never been part of the British Empire, was admitted to the Commonwealth.

The population of the Commonwealth countries exceeds 2 billion people. An important legacy of the British Empire is the spread English language both in the countries that were part of this empire and beyond its borders.

Relations between British and Russian empires things have always been difficult, often very unfriendly. Controversies between the two largest empires led in the mid-19th century. to the Crimean War, then to a sharp escalation in the struggle for influence in Central Asia. Great Britain did not allow Russia to benefit from its victory over Ottoman Empire in the war of 1877–1878. Britain supported Japan in the Russo-Japanese War of 1904–1905. In turn, Russia strongly sympathized with the South African Boer republics in their war against Great Britain in 1899–1902.

The end of open rivalry came in 1907, when, in the face of growing German military power, Russia joined the Entente of Great Britain and France. In World War I, the Russian and British Empires fought together against the Triple Alliance of the German, Austro-Hungarian and Ottoman Empires.

After the October Revolution in Russia, its relations with the British Empire became strained again ((1917)). For the Bolshevik Party, Great Britain was the main initiator in the history of the capitalist system, the bearer of the ideas of “rotten bourgeois liberalism” and the strangler of the peoples of colonial and dependent countries. For ruling circles and a significant part public opinion Great Britain The Soviet Union, asserting its ambitions, was a breeding ground for ideas of overthrowing the power of colonial metropolises around the world by a variety of methods, including terrorism.

Even during the Second World War, when the USSR and the British Empire were allies, members of the anti-Hitler coalition, mutual distrust and suspicion did not disappear. With the onset of the Cold War, mutual accusations became an integral feature of relationships. During the collapse of the British Empire, Soviet policy was aimed at supporting the forces that contributed to its collapse.

For a long time, Russian pre-revolutionary literature (including historical literature) about the British Empire reflected the rivalry and contradictions of the two largest empires - the Russian and the British. In Soviet literature, attention was focused on British anti-Soviet actions, anti-colonial movements, crisis phenomena in the British Empire and evidence of its collapse.

The imperial syndrome in the minds of many British people (as well as residents of other former metropolises) can hardly be considered completely weathered. However, it should be recognized that in British historical science during the years of the collapse of the British Empire there was a gradual departure from traditional colonialist views and a search for mutual understanding and cooperation with the emerging historical science countries that declared their independence. The turn of the 20th and 21st centuries. was marked by the preparation and publication of a number of fundamental studies on the history of the British Empire, including on the problems of interaction between the cultures of the peoples of the empire, on various aspects of decolonization and on the transformation of the empire into the Commonwealth. In 1998–1999, a five-volume Oxford History of the British Empire. M., 1991
Trukhanovsky V.G. Benjamin Disraeli or the story of one incredible career. M., 1993
Ostapenko G.S. British Conservatives and decolonization. M., 1995
Porter B. The Lions Share. A Short History of British Imperialism 1850–1995. Harlow, Essex, 1996
Davidson A.B. Cecil Rhodes - Empire Builder. M. – Smolensk, 1998
Oxford History of the British Empire. Vols. 1–5. Oxford, New York, 1998–1999
Hobsbawm E. Age of Empire. M., 1999
Empire and others: British Encounters with Indigenous people. Ed. by M. Daunton and R. Halpern. London, 1999
Boyce D.G. Decolonization and the British Empire 1775–1997. London, 1999
The Commonwealth in the 21st Century. Ed. by G. Mills and J Stremlau. Pretoria, 1999
Cultures of Empire. Colonizers in Britain and the Empire in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Century. A Reader. Ed. by C. Hall. New York, 2000
Lloyd T. Empire. The History of the British Empire. London and New York, 2001
Royal Historical Society. Bibliography of Imperial, Colonial and Commonwealth History since 1600. Ed. by A. Porter. London, 2002
Heinlein F. British Government Policy and Decolonization 1945–1963. Scrutinizing the Official Mind. London, 2002
Butler L.J. Britain and Empire. Adjusting to a Post-Imperial World. London, New York, 2002
Churchill W. World crisis. Autobiography. Speeches. M., 2003
Bedarida F. Churchill. M., 2003
James L. The Rise and Fall of the British Empire. London, 2004



The British colonial empire began to take shape in the 17th-18th centuries. In the fight against Spain, Holland, and France, England sought trade and maritime hegemony. As a result of the seizure and robbery of colonies, huge capital ended up in the hands of the English bourgeoisie, which contributed to rapid development English industrial production. On carrying out the aggressive foreign policy The Whigs, who defended the interests of financiers, merchants and industrialists, insisted especially energetically. The Tories took a more moderate position on the issue of colonial conquests in England.

In the 18th century England conquered vast territories in Canada, Australia, South Africa, and India. By the middle of the 19th century. England became the largest colonial and commercial and industrial power.

Ireland occupies a special place in the British colonial empire. This is the first English colony, which the English feudal lords tried to conquer back in the 12th century, and then in the 16th-17th centuries. In 1800, Ireland was united with Great Britain in a union that destroyed the remnants of Irish autonomy. Ireland had its own representation in the English Parliament. However, the people of Ireland fought for complete independence, and its deputies in parliament defended the idea of ​​home rule (autonomy). This idea in the 80s of the XIX century. was also accepted by the liberals, who needed the support of the Irish in the fight against the conservatives. In 1886, the Liberal government introduced a bill to Parliament to grant limited self-government to Ireland. However, this law was rejected by the House of Commons. A new law giving autonomy to Ireland passed the House of Commons in 1893, but was rejected by the House of Lords. It was only in 1914 that Parliament was forced to pass the Home Rule Act, according to which Ireland's autonomy acquired the usual status of a dominion. The introduction of this act was delayed until after the war.

All other British colonies were governed according to their legal status. Back in the 18th century. The division of colonies into conquered and resettled colonies was established. The conquered colonies, in which the native population predominated, did not have political autonomy and were governed by a governor-general appointed by the mother country. Representative bodies from local residents played the role of an advisory body to the governor.

In those colonies where white settlers predominated, the British government made concessions. The ruling classes of England feared a repetition of the events that led at the end of the 18th century. to the loss of a significant part of their North American possessions. Meeting the demands of white settlers, mostly immigrants from England, they were forced to provide self-government to some settler colonies.

Relations with Canada have especially changed. In the 50-60s of the XIX century. economic ties between England and this North American colony were already so strong that the British government satisfied the demands of its inhabitants for expanded self-government. In 1867, the administration of Canada was rebuilt on new principles. The four provinces of Canada formed a confederation called the Dominion of Canada. From now on, governors appointed by the English king ruled Canada only through a federal council of ministers responsible to legislative bodies- the Senate and House of Representatives of the dominion.

Not only in Canada, but also in other colonies populated by immigrants from the metropolis in the 50-60s of the 19th century. representative institutions were formed. Of the South African possessions, the Cape Land received self-government in 1854, and Natal in 1856.

In Australia, the first representative institutions were introduced back in the 40s of the 19th century. In 1855, constitutions of individual colonies were developed and then approved, which provided for the introduction of a bicameral parliament and the limitation of gubernatorial power. In 1900, the individual self-governing colonies of Great Britain on the Australian continent were united into the Commonwealth of Australia. The 1900 Constitution declared Australia a federal state. Legislative power was exercised by parliament, consisting of the Senate and the House of Representatives. Executive power belonged to the governor general.

New Zealand received a constitution in 1852.

The largest English colony was India. Conquered in the 18th century. By the East India Trading Company, this country was mercilessly plundered. In 1813, the English Parliament abolished the East India Company's monopoly on trade with India, and many English companies gained access to its markets. The colonization of India was accompanied by high taxation and the seizure of communal lands and natural resources of the country by English landowners and capitalists. Indian industry and agriculture fell into disrepair.

In 1857-1859 A powerful liberation uprising took place in India. It began among Indian soldiers (sepoys) recruited into the troops of the East India Company. Home driving force The uprising was carried out by peasants and artisans, but at the head were princes, dissatisfied with the loss of their possessions. The uprising was brutally suppressed.

The national industry of India, although slowly, developed, and with it the national bourgeoisie became stronger. In 1885, the political bourgeois party Indian National Congress was created. The main demand of the Congress program was the admission of Indians to govern the country. In 1892, by the Indian Councils Act, representatives of the Indian bourgeoisie were admitted to the legislative councils under the Governor-General of India and provincial governors. Access to executive bodies was opened to Indians in 1906. Two Indians were appointed to the Indian Affairs Council (in London), one Indian was appointed to the executive council under the governor-general, and Indians were given access to provincial executive councils. In 1909, the Indian Legislative Councils Act was passed, according to which the number of members of the legislative council under the Governor-General and councils under the provincial governors was significantly increased, thus, wider circles of the Indian bourgeoisie could take part in them. So, by the end of the 19th century. a number of English colonies turned into dominions, self-governing colonies. As they developed, the dominions increasingly claimed the role of an equal partner in relations with the metropolis. To resolve these relations, “colonial conferences” began to be held regularly in 1887, which in 1907 became known as imperial conferences.

Chapter 16. UNITED STATES OF NORTH AMERICA

Great Britain was the most powerful colonial empire, occupying vast territories from Australia to North America. The sun never set on Britain. How did the British manage to conquer half the world?

Economic power

England was one of the first European countries embarked on the path of industrialization. By the middle of the 18th century, the system of protectionism protecting the domestic market from foreign competition provided the country with rapid economic growth.
IN late XIX century, when the world was actually divided between large metropolises, England had already become the main industrial monopolist: in the “workshop of the world,” as Britain was called, a third of the world's industrial output was produced. Such sectors of the British economy as metallurgy, mechanical engineering and shipbuilding led in production volume.
With high rates of economic growth, the domestic market was oversaturated and was looking for profitable applications outside not only the Kingdom, but also Europe. Products and capital from the British Isles actively flowed into the colonies.
He played an important role in the successes of England as a colonial empire. high level technology, which the English economy has always tried to follow. Various innovations - from the invention of spinning machines (1769) to the establishment of transatlantic telegraph communication (1858) - allowed Britain to stay one step ahead of its competitors.

Invincible fleet

England was constantly in anticipation of an invasion from the continent, which forced it to develop shipbuilding and create a combat-ready fleet. By defeating the “Invincible Armada” in 1588, Francis Drake seriously shook the Spanish-Portuguese dominance in the oceans. Since then, England, albeit with varying success, has strengthened its status as a maritime power.
In addition to Spain and Portugal, Holland was a serious competitor to England at sea. The rivalry between the two countries resulted in three Anglo-Dutch wars (1651-1674), which, revealing the relative equality of forces, led to a truce.
Towards the end XVIII century Britain had only one serious competitor at sea - France. The struggle for naval hegemony began during the period of revolutionary wars - from 1792. Then Admiral Nelson won a series of brilliant victories over the French fleet, effectively ensuring England control of the Mediterranean Sea.

In October 1805, Great Britain had the opportunity to assert the right to be called “mistress of the seas.” During the legendary Battle of Trafalgar, the British fleet won a crushing victory over the combined French-Spanish squadron, convincingly demonstrating its tactical and strategic superiority. Britain became the absolute maritime hegemon.

Combat-ready army

To maintain order and maintain stability in the colonies, the British were forced to maintain a combat-ready army there. Using its military superiority, Great Britain by the end of the 1840s conquered almost all of India, whose population was almost 200 million people.
Moreover, the British military constantly had to sort things out with competitors - Germany, France, Holland. Indicative in this regard was the Anglo-Boer War (1899-1902), during which British troops, inferior in number to the forces of the Orange Republic, were able to turn the tide of the confrontation in their favor. However, this war is remembered for the unheard-of cruelty of British soldiers who used “scorched earth tactics.”
The colonial wars between England and France were especially fierce. During Seven Years' War(1756-1763) England conquered almost all of its possessions in the East Indies and Canada from France. The French could only console themselves with the fact that Great Britain was soon forced to capitulate to the United States during the War of Independence.

The Art of Diplomacy

The British have always been skilled diplomats. Masters of political intrigue and behind-the-scenes games on the international stage, they often got their way. So, having failed to defeat Holland in naval battles, they waited until the war between France and Holland reached its climax, and then made peace with the latter on terms favorable to themselves.
Using diplomatic methods, the British prevented France and Russia from reconquering India. At the very beginning of the Russian-French campaign, the British officer John Malcolm concluded two strategic alliances - with the Afghans and with the Persian Shah, which confused all the cards for Napoleon and Paul I. The first consul then abandoned the campaign, and the Russian army never reached India.
Often English diplomacy acted not only cunningly, but also threateningly persistently. During the Russian-Turkish War (1877-1878), she failed to acquire a “soldier on the continent” in the person of the Turks, and then she imposed a treaty on Turkey under which Great Britain acquired Cyprus. The island was occupied immediately and Britain began to establish a naval base in the Eastern Mediterranean.

Management talents

The area of ​​Great Britain's overseas possessions by the end of the 19th century was 33 million square meters. km. To manage such a huge empire, a very competent and efficient administrative apparatus was needed. The British created it.
A well-thought-out system of colonial administration included three structures - the Foreign Office, the Ministry of Colonies and the Office of Dominion Affairs. The key link here was the Ministry of Colonies, which managed finances and recruited personnel for the colonial administration.
The effectiveness of the British management system demonstrated itself during the construction of the Suez Canal. Vitally interested in a sea canal that shortens the route to India and East Africa for 10,000 kilometers, the British spared no expense in investing in the Egyptian economy. However, the huge interest that investors received soon turned Egypt into a debtor. Ultimately, the Egyptian authorities were forced to sell their shares in the Suez Canal Company to Britain.
Often British methods of governance in the colonies brought great troubles. So, in 1769 - 1770. The colonial authorities created a famine in India by purchasing all the rice and then selling it at exorbitant prices. The famine claimed the lives of about 10 million people. The British also practically destroyed Indian industry by importing cotton fabrics of their own production to Hindustan.
Great Britain's colonial hegemony ended only after World War II, when a new leader, the United States of America, entered the political arena.

England. Once conquered by the Romans, this tiny country and nation became one of the most extensive and powerful empires in history. Her influence extended to all corners of the globe. Technologies, innovations, ambitions - these tools were used to create great empire.

They gave birth outstanding british navy, who held the entire world's oceans in his hands. The Royal Navy of the 18th and 19th centuries was everywhere.

The British Empire created massive symbols of dominance that still inspire awe to this day. But this empire was based on vanity, bloodshed and an irresistible thirst for conquest.

William the Conqueror

410 The most powerful empire known to the world is under attack. In the distant British Isles, once indestructible Roman legions retreat to the shore. They leave behind a military and political void. For the first time in more than 400 years, the vulnerable island nation of Britain found itself on its own. It was the end of one empire and the beginning of another.

“The sun never sets on the British Empire,” many have heard these words, although the empire is long gone. At its height, the British Empire occupied a quarter of the landmass - 36 million square kilometers.

But how could an island in the middle of the North Atlantic become a huge empire? In the early 400s, when the Romans fled under pressure, some of these marauding peoples decided to stay. Perhaps I liked the mild climate. After several centuries they organized themselves, and the English people were born.

But with the death of the last true Saxon king, the way was opened for another people - who were descendants of the Vikings who inhabited Northern France.

. He will become the most cruel and insatiable ruler in the history of England. His name was .

About Henry's appetite legends were made: he craved food, women, power and a son to whom he would one day hand over the reins of power.

The best way to fulfill your royal duty is to produce an heir. And if you look at portraits of Tudor men, they stand with their legs wide apart, hands on their hips, and this is not an accident: they seem to be saying, “I am a man, I can produce an heir.” The son was proof of manhood.

He has no memory falls in love with Anne Boleyn, he wants her because Anna was a very attractive woman and she knew it. The only problem is how to get rid of your wife? Without killing, of course. And the answer: get a divorce.

When the Pope refused to give Henry divorce resolution, the king became angry: if he cannot control this religion, he will simply replace it. He's cocky broke all ties with Rome and proclaimed himself the head.

Henry now had absolute power over his country. He divorced Catherine and made Anne queen. But when she did not bear him a son, she suddenly found herself accused of treason.

Everything was presented in such a way that you couldn’t imagine anything worse: she supposedly had more than one affair, but several at once. Some kind of orgies were held in the palace, and Henry readily believed in it. Henry ordered the arrest of Anna and send it to the sprawling London .

The entire complex occupied an area of ​​7 hectares and was surrounded by an impregnable wall. Wooden elements were replaced by stone blocks, the wall was reinforced with several towers, and a second wall for greater reliability. They dug deep ditches outside and filled them with water. With these additional fortifications the complex became practically impregnable.

During the reign of Henry the fortress became personification of vice and cruelty, a notorious prison, dungeon, and execution site for many of his enemies.

Here Anna awaited her fate - execution by beheading. Beheading with an ax was a terrible procedure because usually the terrible weapon did not reach its target on the first blow.

Henry said to Anne Boleyn: “For you, my dear, only the best.” Instead of cutting off her head with an ax, he orders it to be done quickly and carefully sword.

On May 19, 1536, Anna was taken to a small courtyard on the grounds of the Tower. One quick blow and Henry's problem was solved.

But the desire to produce an heir was only one of the king’s ambitious plans: from the very beginning of his reign, he wanted to become famous, turn England into a powerful empire.

The idea of ​​creating an empire that would cover all of Europe and extend beyond its borders never left Henry VIII. Reality in his imagination bordered on the dream of.

But Henry’s path to creating an empire also stood in the way of two European superpowers. His plan is to send floating weapons of mass destruction to distant seas.

Summer 1510. An army of workers combs the forests of England in search of material to build what will help England create an empire. Before conquering land, Henry VIII should have conquer the sea. He decided to radically change the strategy of warfare, turning his ships into deadly weapons.

He was the first to start install heavy weapons on ships: Those guns that were previously used only during siege, some of them weighed almost a ton and were capable of crippling an enemy ship and convincing it to surrender.

Massive guns required large ships. Henry ordered his engineers to build a new fleet. Its crown jewel was its flagship, one of the first warships in the world. They named him.

The ship became the personification of the engineering thought of that era. Install as many guns as possible on board, aimed at different sides- this is what “Mary Rose” became, platform for guns.

Something fundamentally new appeared on the Mary Rose - loopholes for guns. Holes were cut into the sides of the ship and covered with hatches. It allowed cannons to be fired from the sides. Shipbuilders dedicated entire decks to cannons. Additional guns turned the Mary Rose into death machine. Started revolution in shipbuilding, and “Mary Rose” became her first sign.

By the middle of the 16th century, England had become the path to conquer the seas. But Henry soon encountered a problem: the expensive bronze cannons with which the ships were equipped quickly drained the royal treasury. He had to come up with another way to produce heavy artillery that would make his army and navy invincible at less cost. The ideal solution was cast iron cannon: it was 50 times cheaper than bronze.

A workable cast iron cannon had not yet been created, but Heinrich knew how to speed up the process: he remembered a large iron-bearing region of the country Wilde, and gave orders to the engineers.

The difficulty of casting such an element as a cannon was that the iron first had to be melted at very high temperatures. high temperature. There was only one way to get the required temperature - an engineering miracle of the time forced draft furnace.

First the workers laid down the wood and iron ore on top of a 6-meter stone oven. The water wheel drove huge bellows, which fanned the fire until the temperature reached 2200 degrees, enough to melt iron. Then the workers opened the tap at the base of the furnace. A stream of hot iron poured into a mold buried deep in the ground.

This was a serious business, it required various resources: furnaces were needed to produce coal, people who harvested timber, workers who extracted iron ore from the ground, crews who brought and loaded ore and coal into the furnace.

Over the next few centuries, cast iron cannons from the Weald became the envy of all European rulers.

This completely changed the balance of power: the guns were given to England power and technological advantage, which no other country had.

In just 30 years, Henry built new fleet. But he was not destined to fulfill his long-time dream of conquering: an exorbitant appetite did this obese man a disservice. He died January 1547, leaving descendants with the memory of cruelty and inventions that were ahead of the era. He sowed the seeds from which a mighty empire would grow.

Henry laid the foundation, by building a fleet, make it clear that Britain will become an empire, declaring itself to the world.

George III - the mad king of the British Empire

Over the next 150 years, Britain would expand through colonies and conquests, using the growing power of its fleet. By the mid-18th century, Britain controlled part of India, Africa, and North America.

But two serious threats loom on the horizon, and the king who must fight them will also fight his own demons.

Everyone was talking about him madness, the physical illness affected his brain. George had his first attack of madness in 1788, 7 years after a serious blow. A small territory in another part of the world defeated the mighty British. This country was called.

When the British troops left the city of York, when they surrendered, the world seemed to turn upside down. And so it was: a world in which rebels are victorious is a mad world.

Over the next decades, George's world slowly but surely changed. In 1804, a new disaster would threaten the king and his empire: the French Emperor.

At the beginning of the 19th century, a tyrant conqueror quickly took control of Europe. England was the only obstacle to continental dominance. He was as much of a threat as the Nazis were in World War II, and he was preparing troops to invade the British Isles.

The British Royal Navy became the main sea ​​power and in 1805 he met with the aggressor Napoleon in the famous. Using fearless tactics and the most technically advanced ships of the era, England defeated the combined forces of the French and Spanish fleets.

The Battle of Trafalgar strengthened England's position, making it a major naval power. The British became unsurpassed masters shipbuilding.

But by the time of Napoleon's final defeat in 1815, King George III completely overwhelmed by madness: He completely lost his mind and almost lost his sight. The king wandered through the corridors, could not eat on his own, grew a long beard, and did not know what day it was.

Great Western Railway

By this time England had become superpower, whose superiority was based on shipbuilding. But another technology will emerge that will bring the British Empire closer to world domination. The 19th century was about to bring an invention comparable in significance to the achievements of the Romans.

By the 19th century, Britain had become the world's richest industrial giant. She owed her colossal successes to stunning inventions in the field of technology, which first swept the empire and then the whole world.

It is difficult to remember another period of history associated with such rise in technology, with such a desire to experiment with machines, introduce new construction methods, bring something new to architecture.

In the past, empires were built with hands, and the British conquered their territories with the help of machines. Innovations such as metal casting and the transformation of a warship into a single controllable machine with guns transformed the English fleet, and this the fleet turned England into an empire. And this military-economic empire stretched from Europe to Asia, from America to Africa, dominating the. But what about sushi?

Britain experienced a surge in productivity in the early 19th century, but there were not enough means of ground transportation. In 1782, someone improved steam driven engine, but only 40 years later and his sons took this engine and, with the help of a firebox, a boiler, a piston and an amazing invention called a pipe, put it on rails, developing an unimaginable speed of 47 km/h.

The Rocket was not the first steam locomotive, but its unique features indicated that the steam engine was the power of the future. The key to speed lies in the engine..

Several copper tubes transferred hot gas from the coal firebox to a tank of water, bringing it to a boil. Steam appeared and rose through the valve into the cylinder. The intense steam pressure moved the piston rod connected to the wheels of the locomotive, pushing it forward. By releasing steam through a pipe rather than a cylinder, fresh air was allowed into the firebox to maintain the fire. With this innovation, the Rocket could fly at tremendous speed.

Of all the steam locomotives that could be imagined at that time, this one is most similar to the one we are used to seeing. Of course, it will continue to be improved, but this the basis of the locomotive for the next 100 years.

Now it was necessary to encircle Britain with a net railways, and in 1833 the daring, brilliant engineer entered this race and became famous. His name was .

Brunel was a real showman: he dressed well, had a beautiful wife, he was a celebrity and knew how to use it. He was also a workaholic, he constantly lacked time.

Brunel had grandiose plans: his railway would be the most ambitious project in history, this network would connect all corners of England. Brunel named it and intended to make it the fastest in the world.

He wanted the road to have a minimal angle of inclination so that trains could travel along it much faster. The need for speed demanded passing through the mountains, and not according to them, and in connection with this his greatest technical achievement appeared - railway tunnel.

It was obvious that it was necessary dig a tunnel in the stone the entire length of the mountain, and it was 1 km 200 m. At that time it was simply unthinkable! Even by today's standards, this is a serious tunnel.

Brunel collected hundreds of Irish navvies to dig this tunnel. They started by making several shafts from the surface of the mountain to the base. Used to remove hard rocks powder. Workers then descended into the shafts in baskets and pulled out the debris with almost bare hands. Horses and a winch lifted these fragments to the surface.

It was a long, complex and sometimes quite dangerous process, and of course, during the construction of the tunnel there were casualties: a lot of dust, soot, and during explosions the workers risked being covered with stones.

After 4 years, the tunnel, which took a hundred lives, was completed. The Great Western Railway finally opened in 1841. Trains still pass through this tunnel.

Railway mania, which Brunel helped spark, eventually spread throughout the empire, further increasing England's influence throughout the world. Railways, which appeared since the beginning of the 19th century in England and then throughout the world, were the subject of admiration: they are long, loud, dirty, they represent power and speed, the conquest of space and time - an incredible achievement!

The advantage that England gained from the construction of railways allowed it to be several decades ahead of other countries. The Empire reached its peak.

But a powerful blow struck at its center will make the empire shake to its very foundation.

October 1834. On a dark night in London in the heart of the British Empire in the Palace of Westminster began severe fire. For several centuries, this complex was the command center of Britain and a symbol of its power and invincibility. Now the flames turned the palace into a fiery Gehenna, and thousands of people thought with horror about what would now become of their powerful government.

The fire of 1834 caused severe a blow to the political center of the British Empire. The Palace of Westminster had stood in one form or another since the late 11th century, and now only ruins remained, and the British wondered: would Parliament ever meet in this place? Will its members be able to vote within the walls where the modern political system was born?

This had to be decided by a special royal commission, and the answer was “yes”: the Houses of Parliament would be reconstructed. But a more difficult question arose: what would this building look like? Build it in French or English style? And if so, then in style Elizabeth Tudor or English?

For two years this question did not let anyone sleep peacefully, until in 1836 a royal commission selected a plan from 97 projects, a fan Italian Renaissance . He combined its features with neo-Gothic ones, and the result was a modern parliament building, a hodgepodge of styles, but impressive.

From the ruins of the old parliament, British architects will erect a truly gigantic building: it is twice the size of the American one. The palace, built of yellowish sandstone, covers an area of ​​32 thousand square meters. Its towers rise 98 meters.

Big Ben, or Elizabeth Tower

It was decided that one of them would be installed huge watch. This tower, which for a long time was called Big Ben, was renamed Elizabeth Tower in 2012 in honor of ElizabethII.

In the 19th century, time could be measured quite accurately, and it was a very valuable resource: time is money. And in the 19th century a real revolution took place in this regard. If such a grandiose construction was planned, it was impossible to do without a clock.

When the Royal Astronomer announced the requirements for the watch, everyone was amazed: it would be the largest and most accurate watch in the world.

Airy's requirements were very strict. For example, one of them stated that the clock must be accurate with maximum error 1 second per day, and reports on their accuracy were to be sent to twice daily. This was not the 21st century of information, for watchmakers of the 19th century, setting up a giant mechanism, and even in a tower, taking into account the weight of the mechanism and hands, with such precision that they would show right time second by second, hour by hour, week by week, year by year, even though they were exposed to rain, snow, wind - all this was a real miracle, as unheard of as going to the moon.

And Parliament asked Airy if he could propose a more realistic and less expensive plan? But Airy was adamant, so the Elizabeth Tower, called the Bells, became the personification of precision for the whole world.

It's surprising, but the famous project belonged to an amateur watchmaker named Edmund Beckett Denison. He managed to achieve the required accuracy, while the experts failed to cope with the task.

Like all clocks of this type, it will be driven by weights, gears and a pendulum. But Big Ben will appear fundamentally new element , which will protect the pendulum from influence external forces. Two metal levers control a three-spoke wheel. With each swing of the pendulum, one of the arms moves, allowing the wheel to rotate one unit. This regulates the movement of the clock. When snow or rain presses on the clock hands, the arms isolate the pendulum and it continues to swing unchanged.

To set the clock, time keepers only had to reach into their pockets. Coins were used to set the clock: by reporting or removing old-style pennies from the pendulum, one could add or subtract 2/5 of a second per day. Thanks to this ingenious but simple method, watches have become the world standard for precision.

The clock tower above the Houses of Parliament at the center of the empire has a symbolic meaning, as if the British were in control of time itself.

In addition to clocks, bells were needed to mark the passage of time. Called every hour giant central bell. bell caster, George Meas, created this giant according to Denison's instructions. Thus was born Running Ben, weighing 13 tons.

In 1858, thousands of people took to the streets to watch Beg Ben being installed on the clock tower. Since then, its ringing has regularly echoed over London.

London has grown significantly. It was the world's first city with a suburb, and it was to have symbols, the main one of which was "father of all parliaments"– Parliament building with Big Ben, symbol of the strength and power of the British Empire.

Victoria - a teenage girl at the head of the British Empire

By the mid-19th century, Great Britain had established high standards in the field of new technologies. But during the reign of the young and naive queen, London will amaze crisis, which will almost cause a real disaster.

In 1837, the reins of the most powerful empire on earth passed to a teenage girl. Her ascension to the throne gave rise to wave of discontent: both her subjects and the government looked at her as if she were a spoiled child, unready to rule the country. Her name was Queen.

She was only 18 when she ascended the throne, and the first two years were extremely difficult for her: she was poorly received. Then it was difficult to imagine that this girl would turn into a symbol of the power of the empire, revered by everyone.

She began to change when she married her cousin in 1840. Victoria fell in love almost at first sight. All her life she wanted to have someone to lean on, including literally. And Albert fulfilled this role: he came and helped her grow up.

By this time the empire extended throughout the world from North America to Australia. Albert and Victoria supported technology development and construction, they knew how important it was to their growing empire. And one of priority areas there was creation.

The empire stretched over almost the entire globe. There was talk about overcoming space and time with the help of an electric telegraph. At the suggestion of the British such an innovation as the telegraph took over the whole world. In the mid-19th century, over 155 thousand kilometers of steel telegraph wires were laid. It was possible to send a message from England and receive it in India in just a few hours.

It was the first in the world information superhighway. With its help, the empire could manage its territories much more efficiently than before.

Without a doubt, this is the greatest achievement, no one had dared to think about it before.

London's grand sewer system

Advances in technology not only united the empire, they provoked unprecedented production boom. People left villages and converged on cities in search of better work. Labor productivity grew rapidly, as did population of the capital- London.

If at the beginning of the 19th century the population was one million, then by 1850 there were 2 million, and London was not intended for so many people: it was overcrowded, people lived as if in a huge chicken coop.

Thames. The situation foreshadowed nothing but disaster.

Do you think that the Thames, a huge river, is a great way to get rid of London's waste? But unfortunately, London was supplied with water from it. Just imagine: the waste of two million inhabitants was dumped into the Thames, and then Londoners drank this water.

1848 London was struck by a catastrophe: a storm swept through the overpopulated city. cholera epidemic, 14 thousand people died. Three years later the epidemic recurred, claiming the lives of another 10 thousand victims. The cemeteries were overflowing. One of the most advanced cities in the world found itself in conditions not seen since the medieval epidemic.

In 30 years, 30 thousand Londoners died. The reason for this was a cholera epidemic that spread through contaminated water.

Something had to be done. England addressed the engineer by name. His project will accomplish revolution in urban planning. With the help of thousands of workers, he would build the most advanced sewer system of the era.

Bazalgette's innovative approach involved the installation of collectors with pipes, which were supposed to become a parallel channel of the Thames within London. These pipes will be connected to two thousand kilometers of old city sewer pipes, collecting waste and preventing it from entering the river.

The genius of the system is that it used, whenever possible, to remove wastewater from London. gravity: the pipes were located at a slope.

Where gravity was not enough, Bazalgette built large pumping stations. There, huge steam engines raised the waste to the point where gravity began to operate again.

The waste was transported through tubes from giant tanks, where it was kept until high tide, when nature could carefully dispose of it.

This sewer system was one of the wonders of the 19th century. It took 300 million bricks. A grandiose project! They managed to accomplish something colossal. Brilliant and simple!

Realization is so large-scale project turned London into the first sparkling clean capital. European cities studied city systems with awe.

Tower Bridge

However, the crises of Victoria's reign were not limited to epidemics. If you read « Hard times”, so much so that the city began to choke on its own success.

A second crossing was needed, but a traditional bridge would block the path with a large merchant ships. London needed drawbridge .

This drawbridge will be the largest and most complex of its kind. He will be called . The frame is made of steel and covered with stone so as not to contrast with the Tower of London.

When the bridge was built, the 1200 ton wings, or farms, climbed with the help steam engines. The steam turned huge gears along the steel beam. The hard metal pin rotated as the gear lifted part of the bridge. The wings stopped at an angle of 83 degrees, allowing ships to pass. The bridge opened in just a minute, an incredible achievement in construction.

Tower Bridge was built by 400 workers over 8 years. Today it is one of the most famous and recognizable bridges in the world.

She spent almost 10 years in solitude. But when she finally returned to public life, she was stronger and more powerful than ever. The stupid girl turned into a modern ruler and took her rightful place as queen.

All over the world, monuments were erected in honor of Victoria, noisy celebrations took place and colonized peoples often took part in them. She was everyone's favorite.

Queen Victoria became a symbol of the greatness and power of the empire. Victoria's reign will become the culminating point in its development. The British Empire now had dominions on every continent and had a population of 400 million. No other country could challenge its power, it was the largest empire in history.

Queen Victoria died in 1901, at the dawn of the 20th century. She led a huge state, guiding it with a confident hand along the path of progress.

The British Empire dragged humanity into new era: the age of mass production, speed and information. The world will never be the same again. British ideas and achievements were used by everyone.

The Sun may have set on the British Empire after all, but considering the miracles that marked its entry into new century, it has never shone brighter.

British Empire - what kind of state is it? This was a power that included Great Britain and numerous colonies. The most extensive empire that has ever existed on our planet. In the old days, the territory of the British Empire occupied one quarter of the entire earth's landmass. True, almost a hundred years have passed since then.

When did the British Empire begin? Defining a time frame is not easy. We can say that it arose during the time of Elizabeth I, who ruled in the second half of the 16th century. It was then that England gained excellent navy, which allowed her to turn into Still real story The British Empire begins with the first English settlement in the New World.

What allowed this power to become the largest in the world? First of all, colonization. In addition, the plantation economy and, alas, the slave trade actively developed in the British Empire. For two centuries, these factors were the most important in the country's economy. Nevertheless, England became the state that first opposed the slave trade. So, let's take a closer look major events in the history of the British Empire. Let's start with the first colonial conquests.

Challenge Spain

Christopher Columbus, as you know, spent a long time convincing the monarchs to equip the expedition. He dreamed of reaching the countries of the East, but he found support only from Queen Isabella of Castile. So the Spaniards became pioneers in the development of America, who immediately subjugated vast territories. The British Empire later became the most powerful. However, she did not immediately enter the struggle for the colonies.

In the second half of the 16th century, the crown of the British Empire belonged to Elizabeth I. It was during her reign that the power acquired a powerful fleet capable of challenging Spain and Portugal. But for now, colonies could only be dreamed of. The question was not so much about technical capabilities, but about legal aspects. Portugal and Spain divided open lands back at the end of the 15th century, drawing a line from south to north across the Atlantic. Closer to the 16th century, the monopoly of these states finally began to cause murmurs.

An important step in the formation of the British Empire was the so-called Moscow Campaign. Captain Richard Chancellor received an audience with Ivan the Terrible. The result of this meeting was the tsar's permission to trade with English merchants in Russia. This was during those terrible times when it belonged to a Catholic woman, who, due to her energetic struggle against heretics, received the nickname “Bloody.” It's about about Mary, eldest daughter Henry VIII.

England tried to reach the shores of China, but these attempts led nowhere. However, cooperation with the Russian tsars made it possible to develop new trade routes to Bukhara and Persia, which brought considerable dividends. However, despite the development of trade, America was of considerable interest to the British.

English pirates

How did the British Empire begin to explore the lands of the New World? The origins of English colonization followed a more interesting pattern. The subjects of the British Empire initially only wanted to establish trade relations with America. But the Spanish queen did not allow them to do this. The English sailors were upset, but not at a loss. They retrained as smugglers, and then even pirates.

Since 1587, the Queen of England has supported the ambitions of her subjects at the official level. Each of the pirates was issued a certificate of authorization for maritime robbery against representatives of hostile states. By the way, they were called pirates who had special document, privateers. A pirate is a more general concept. A privateer is someone who combined a career in the Royal Navy with sea robbery. We got some great shots. Among the robber seafarers were John Davis and Martin Frobisher - people to whom many pages are dedicated in the annals of navigation.

First colony

But the British Empire needed its own colonies. Why should the rich, vast lands of the New World go to the Spaniards? This question finally came to a head towards the end of the 17th century. The founder of the first colony was Sir Walter Raleigh - philosopher, historian, poet, favorite of the queen. The leader of the 1583 expedition was his brother. Sir Raleigh himself remained in London. As a result of the storm, one of the ships was wrecked. However, Gilbert, the head of the English expedition, managed to reach the shore and a large fishing settlement (now the Canadian city of Saint John). Here he saw the waving flags of various states. Gilbert immediately erected the banner of the British Empire, confiscated the catch, and passed several dubious laws. However, things weren't going well for him. in the best possible way. The sailors began to grumble and complain about the terrible climate. Some weighed anchor.

Gilbert decided to return to England. However, as a result of another storm, his frigate sank. Sir Raleigh mourned his brother, and then began to prepare for a new expedition. Finally, the British managed to achieve their goal. They reached the shores of the New World, that part of it where there were no Spaniards yet.

There was a wonderful climate and fertile soil. And most importantly, the natives are very nice and hospitable. Sir Raleigh decided to name this colony Virginia. However, another name stuck - Roanoke (the territory of the northern part of the state of Carolina). The outbreak of war between the British Empire and Spain upset colonial plans. Moreover, it almost happened mystical story, indicating that the natives were not so hospitable. 15 settlers disappeared. The bones of one of them were discovered near an Aboriginal hut.

English slave trade

In 1664, the province of New Amsterdam became part of the British Empire, later renamed New York. In 1681, the colony of Pennsylvania was founded. The British began to develop such a profitable business as the sale of slaves around the 70s of the 17th century. The Royal African Company received a monopoly on this type of activity. Slavery was at the heart of the economy of the British Empire.

Asia

In the 16th century, trading companies were founded that exported spices from India. The first belonged to Holland, the second to the British Empire. Close contacts between Amsterdam and London and their intense competition led to serious conflict. However, as a result, it was the British Empire in India that was firmly entrenched for a long time. However, in the 17th century, Holland still occupied a strong position in the Asian colonies. IN early XVIII century, the British Empire managed to overtake Holland in terms of economic development.

France and England

In 1688, a treaty was concluded between Holland and the British Empire. The war that began that same year established England as a strong colonial power. At the very beginning of the 18th century, a war began against France and Spain, which resulted in the Treaty of Utrecht. The British Empire expanded. After the peace treaty was concluded, she received Arkady and Newfoundland. From Spain, which lost most of its possessions, it received Minorca and Gibraltar. The latter, at the beginning of the 18th century, became a powerful naval base that allowed the British Empire to control access to the Atlantic from the Mediterranean Sea.

American Revolutionary War

Since 1775, the colonists fought hard for their independence. Ultimately, the British Empire had no choice but to recognize the States as an independent state. During the war, the Americans attempted to invade British Canada. However, due to the lack of support from the French-speaking colonists, they were unable to achieve their goals. Historians perceive the loss of strategically important territories in the New World by the British as the boundary between the first and second periods in the history of the British Empire. The second stage lasted until 1945. Then began the period of decolonization of the Empire.

Why India was called the Pearl of the British Empire

It is not known exactly who this metaphor belongs to. There is a version that this phrase was first uttered by the British politician Benjamin Disraeli in the 19th century. India was without a doubt the richest English colony. Many were concentrated here natural resources, which were highly valued all over the world: silk, cotton, precious metals, tea, grain, spices. However, India did not generate income only due to its abundance of natural resources. In addition, there was cheap labor here.

Thirteen Colonies

What does this term mean? These are the colonies of the British Empire in North America. In 1776, they signed the Declaration of Independence, that is, they did not recognize British rule. This event was preceded by the Revolutionary War. List of colonies:

1. Province of Massachusetts Bay.
2. Province of New Hampshire.
3. Connecticut Colony.
4. Colony of Rhode Island.
5. Province of New Jersey.
6. Province of New York.
7. Province of Pennsylvania.
8. Colony and Dominion of Virginia.
9. Province of Maryland.
10. Delaware Colony.
11. Colony of Virginia.
12. Provinces South Carolina.
13. Province of North Carolina.
14. Province of Georgia.

Abolition of slavery

At a time when the debate about the abolition of serfdom was just beginning in Russia, the fight against the slave trade was already in full swing in the British Empire. In 1807, a ban was issued on the export of African slaves. Eight years later, a congress was held in Vienna, during which England proposed to impose a final ban on the slave trade as a type of business. And soon the International Maritime Organization was established, the purpose of which was to prosecute violators.

At the Congress of Vienna, the discussion was exclusively about the export of African slaves. That is, everyone continued to exploit free labor within the state. An anti-slavery society was formed in 1823. Ten years later, a law came into force that prohibited not only the slave trade, but also slavery in all its manifestations.

East India Company

In the policy of the British Empire, the main goal for a long time was to retain possessions in India. As already mentioned, the richest resources were concentrated here. The East India Company was the main instrument of expansion in the 19th century. And in the thirties, she developed a business exporting opium to China. After Chinese authorities confiscated several thousand boxes of the powerful drug, the British Empire launched a campaign that history would call the First Opium War.

In 1857, there was a revolt of mercenary soldiers in India. Around this time the East India Company was dissolved. At the end of the 19th century, India was gripped by famine caused by crop failures and failed regulation of trade tariffs. About 15 million people died.

XX century

At the beginning of the century, Germany became one of the largest military states, which the British considered as a dangerous adversary. That is why the British Empire had to move closer to Russia and France. During the First World War, England managed to consolidate its status in Cyprus, Palestine, and some regions of Cameroon.

Between the First and Second World Wars, the UK economy was strengthened by exports. The States and Japan posed some threat. In addition, during this period they developed revolutionary movements in Ireland and India.

England had to choose between an alliance with the United States or Japan. Initially, the choice was made in favor of Japan. In 1922, the Washington Naval Agreement was signed. However, in the thirties, militarists came to power in Japan, and therefore friendly relations with this state had to be stopped.

Great Britain played an important role in World War II. After France was occupied, the empire was left formally alone against Nazi Germany and its allies. This continued until 1941, when the Soviet Union entered the war.

Collapse of the British Empire

It was a long process that began in 1945. The British Empire was one of the victors in World War II. Nevertheless, the consequences of this enormous armed conflict were terrifying for her. Europe found itself under the influence of two states - the USSR and the USA. The British Empire barely escaped bankruptcy. Its complete collapse as a world power was publicly demonstrated by the Suez crisis.

Most of Britain's colonies were located in new territories, which were leased in 1898. The lease term was 99 years. The British government made unsuccessful attempts to maintain power in these lands. Yet in 1997, one of the world's greatest empires disappeared.