1. Science and scientific research.
2. Methodological principles of scientific research.
3. Types of scientific research.
4. Structure and stages of scientific research.
1. Science and scientific research.
Science- this is the sphere human activity, the result of which is new knowledge about reality that meets the criterion of truth.
Science as a system of knowledge and as a result of human activity is characterized by: completeness, reliability, systematicity. Scientific knowledge is recognized as knowledge that can be refuted (recognized as false) in the process of experimental verification. Knowledge for which it is impossible to come up with an appropriate procedure cannot be scientific.
Scientific activity is a creative activity aimed at obtaining knowledge about nature, man, community and the use of scientific knowledge to develop new ways of applying it.
The purpose of science- comprehension of the truth, and the way to know the truth is scientific research.
Research, in contrast to spontaneous forms of knowledge of the surrounding world, is based on the norm of activity - the scientific method. Its implementation involves awareness and fixation of the goals and objectives of the study, research tools (methodology, approaches, methods, techniques), and the orientation of the study towards the reproducibility of the result.
Research– one of the types of cognitive activity, which consists in the development of scientific knowledge aimed at establishing scientific truth.
2. Methodological principles of scientific research.
1. The principle of determinism
2. Systematic principle
3. Development principle
1. The principle of determinism
Determinism is one of the main explanatory principles of scientific knowledge, requiring the interpretation of the phenomena under study based on the natural interaction of factors accessible to empirical control.
Determinism appears in the form of causation as a set of circumstances that precede in time a given event and cause it.
The principle of determinism - general scientific - organizes the different construction of knowledge in specific sciences.
2. Systematic principle
Systematicity- an explanatory principle of scientific knowledge, requiring the study of phenomena in their dependence on the internally connected whole that they form, thereby acquiring new properties inherent in the whole.
From scientific thought it is required that knowledge be built according to a certain logic and its various fragments formed into complete picture- this is the principle systematic.
3. Development principle
Any phenomenon can receive an adequate explanation if it becomes the subject of study in its development. Principle development– can and should be considered in unity with two other principles of constructing scientific research – determinism and systematicity.
3. Types of scientific research.
1. According to the direction of research distinguish:
Empirical
Theoretical
Although the distinction is conditional. Most of the studies are of a theoretical and empirical nature.
2. By the nature of the study divided into:
fundamental research aimed at understanding reality without taking into account the practical effect of applying knowledge;
applied research is carried out in order to obtain knowledge that should be used to solve specific problems practical problems;
monodisciplinary research conducted within the same science;
interdisciplinary research that requires the participation of specialists in various fields and is carried out at the intersection of several scientific disciplines;
complex research conducted using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied;
single-factor (analytical) research aimed at identifying one, most significant, in the researcher’s opinion, aspect of reality.
3. According to the purpose of the event research can be divided into several types:
1 type Search engines research is an attempt to solve problems that no one has posed or solved using similar methods;
Type 2 Critical research – carried out in order to refute existing theories, models, hypotheses, laws or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality;
Type 3 Clarifying research - their goal is to establish the boundaries within which theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, in comparison with the original experimental sample, the research conditions, object, and methodology change. Thus, it is recorded to which area of reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge extends;
Type 4 Reproducing research. Their goal is an exact repetition of the experiment of their predecessors to determine the validity, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained.
The results of any study must be replicated in a similar experiment conducted by other scientific workers with appropriate competence. Therefore, after the discovery of a new effect, pattern, or creation of a new technique, many reproducing studies designed to verify the results of the discoverers. Reproducing research is the basis of all science. Consequently, the method and specific experimental technique must be intersubjective, i.e. The operations performed during the study must be reproduced by any qualified researcher.
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Non-state educational institution higher vocational education"Moscow Institute of Linguistics"
Faculty of Linguistics and International Management
By academic discipline"Fundamentals of Scientific Research"
Types of scientific research
Work completed
1st year student
correspondence department
Gorishnaya Emma
City of Moscow 2015
Introduction
1. Scientific research
2. Types and types of scientific research
2.1 Empirical, theoretical and theoretical-empirical
2.2 Fundamental, applied and research design developments in science
2.3 Search, critical, clarifying and reproducing types
Conclusion
List of used literature, internet resources
Introduction
Modern science is developing at a very fast pace; currently, the volume of scientific knowledge doubles every 10-15 years. About 90% of all scientists who have ever lived on Earth are our contemporaries. In just 300 years, namely the age of modern science, humanity has made such a huge leap that our ancestors could not even dream of (about 90% of all scientific and technical achievements have been made in our time). The entire world around us shows how much progress humanity has made. The beginning of our century coincided with the unfolding of a chain of events that led to the phenomenon that we now call the scientific and technological revolution (STR).
Nowadays, a lot of attention is paid to the problems of scientific and technological revolution; people willingly write and argue about them. True, the debate is more about the chronology and relative importance of various achievements. This is by no means the main aspect of the problem. We are proud of space flights, we attach great importance to serious significance achievements in the field nuclear energy, our lives are greatly influenced by the process of automation of production and management. All this is true. But there have always been great discoveries, in any era of scientific development. And each time no less significant for its time. What is most typical of the era of modern scientific and technological revolution is inextricably linked with the transformation of science into the productive force of society. Nowadays, each state includes issues of scientific and technological progress (STP) in the structure of its strategic doctrine - the basic principles of the development of society. Currently, not only the process of discovery itself and not only the process of bringing these discoveries to an acceptable, practically implementable form, but also the process of transferring and mastering the results of scientific and technical progress requires the participation of science. And many other problems of social life, which were previously solved on the basis of intuition or common sense, based on the experience of generations, now require active and targeted intervention, the participation of science. Not a single serious question modern conditions cannot be effectively resolved without relying on science. Features of scientific and technological revolution are the growing role of science; the possibility of automating not only physical, but also mental (non-creative) labor; rapid growth and updating of scientific and technical information; quick change of materials, structures, machines, technological processes; a sharp increase in the variety of engineering solutions; increasing the level of integrated mechanization and automation, as well as control systems. The development of scientific and technical progress affects the improvement higher education. It places new and increased demands on students’ knowledge, their creative development, the ability to find the most rational constructive, technological, organizational and economic solutions; have a good grasp of the selection of scientific information; pose and solve various fundamentally new questions. Fulfillment of the assigned tasks is possible if young specialists are equipped with the latest knowledge in the field of scientific research. This obliges high school widely involve students in scientific research. Thus, the scientific training of students in universities is one of the most important training programs.
1. Research
Science is a continuously developing system of knowledge of the objective laws of nature, society and thinking, obtained and transformed into the direct productive force of society as a result of the special activities of people. Science can be seen in different dimensions: 1) as a specific form of social consciousness, the basis of which is a system of knowledge; 2) as a process of cognition of the laws of the objective world; 3) as a certain type of social division of labor; 4) as one of the important factors social development and as a process of knowledge production and its use. The main feature and main function of science is knowledge of the objective world. Science was created to directly identify the essential aspects of all phenomena of nature, society and thinking. The goal of science is to understand the laws of development of nature and society and influence nature through the use of knowledge to obtain results useful to society. Until the corresponding laws are discovered, a person can only describe phenomena, collect, systematize facts, but he cannot explain or predict anything. The development of science proceeds from the collection of factors, their study and systematization, generalization and disclosure of individual patterns to a connected, logically coherent system of scientific knowledge, which makes it possible to explain known facts and predict new ones. The process of cognition involves the accumulation of facts. Without systematization and generalization, without logical understanding of facts, no science can exist. But although facts are the air of a scientist, they are not science in themselves. Facts become an integral part of scientific knowledge when they appear in a systematized, generalized form. The most important component in the system of scientific knowledge are scientific laws, which reflect the most significant, stable, repeating objective internal connections in nature, society and thinking. Usually laws appear in the form of a certain relationship of concepts and categories. Science also includes research methods. A method is understood as a method of theoretical research or practical implementation of a phenomenon or process. A method is a tool for solving main task science - the discovery of objective laws of reality. The method determines the need and place of application of induction and deduction, analysis and synthesis, comparison of theoretical and experimental studies. Any scientific theory, explaining the nature of certain processes of reality, is always associated with a certain particular method of research. Based on general and specific research methods, the scientist receives an answer to where to start research, how to treat facts, how to generalize, and which way to reach conclusions. Currently everything higher value acquires a general mathematical method of research, i.e. method of quantitative study of phenomena and processes. This is due to the rapid development of cybernetics, computational mathematics and computers.
The form of implementation and development of science is scientific research, i.e. study with the help scientific methods phenomena and processes, analysis of the influence of various factors on them, as well as studying the interaction between phenomena in order to obtain convincingly proven and useful solutions for science and practice maximum effect. The purpose of scientific research is to identify a specific object and a comprehensive, reliable study of its structure, characteristics, connections based on the principles and methods of cognition developed in science, as well as obtaining results useful for human activity, implementation in production with further effect. The basis for the development of each scientific research is methodology, i.e. a set of methods, methods, techniques and their specific sequence adopted in the development of scientific research. Ultimately, methodology is a scheme, a plan for solving a given research problem. Scientific research should be considered in continuous development, based on linking theory with practice. An important role in scientific research is played by cognitive tasks that arise when solving scientific problems, the greatest interest of which is empirical and theoretical. Empirical tasks are aimed at identifying exact description and a thorough study of the various factors of the phenomena and processes under consideration. In scientific research, they are solved using various methods of cognition - observation and experiment. Observation is a method of cognition in which an object is studied without interfering with it; They record and measure only the properties of the object and the nature of its change. An experiment is the most general empirical method of cognition, in which not only observations and measurements are made, but also rearrangements, changes in the object of study, etc. are carried out. The results of scientific research are evaluated the higher the higher the scientific nature of the conclusions and generalizations made, the more reliable they are and more efficient. They must create the basis for new scientific developments. One of the most important requirements for scientific research is scientific generalization, which will allow one to establish the dependence and connection between the phenomena and processes being studied and draw scientific conclusions. The deeper the conclusions, the higher the scientific level of the research.
2. Species and typesscientific research
Scientific research is: Theoretical Empirical
Theoretical-empirical
Research by its nature can be divided into
Fundamental
Applied
Research and development
Monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary
Analytical and complex
According to the purpose of the study:
Search engines
Critical
Clarifying
Reproducing
2.1 Empirical, theoretical and theoretical-empirical researchin science
There are empirical and theoretical studies:
Theoretical level research is characterized by the predominance of logical methods of cognition. At this level, the obtained facts are examined and processed using logical concepts, inferences, laws and other forms of thinking. Here the objects under study are mentally analyzed, generalized, their essence, internal connections, and laws of development are comprehended. At this level, cognition through the senses (empirics) may be present, but it is subordinate. Structural components theoretical knowledge are problem, hypothesis and theory.
Problem is a complex theoretical or practical problem, the methods for solving which are unknown or incompletely known. There are undeveloped and developed problems.
Undeveloped problems are characterized by the following features:
1) they arose on the basis of a certain theory, concept;
2) these are difficult, non-standard tasks;
3) their solution is aimed at eliminating the contradiction that has arisen in knowledge;
4) ways to solve the problem are unknown.
Developed problems have more or less specific instructions on how to solve them.
Hypothesis- this is an assumption in which, based on a number of factors, a conclusion is made about the existence of an object, connection or cause of a phenomenon, and this conclusion cannot be considered completely proven. The need for a hypothesis arises in science when the connection between phenomena and their cause are unclear, although many circumstances preceding or accompanying them are known, when, based on some characteristics of the present, it is necessary to reconstruct a picture of the past or, based on the past and present, to draw a conclusion about the future development of the phenomenon.
The hypothesis itself requires verification and proof of the assumption about the cause that causes a certain effect, about the structure of the objects under study and the nature of the internal and external connections of the structural elements.
A scientific hypothesis must meet the following requirements:
1) compliance with the facts on which it relies;
2) verifiability empirically, comparability with observational or experimental data (with the exception of untestable hypotheses);
3) compatibility with existing scientific knowledge;
4) possessing explanatory power, i.e. a certain number of facts and consequences confirming it should be derived from the hypothesis. The hypothesis from which the largest number of facts is derived will have greater explanatory power;
5) simplicity, i.e. it should not contain any arbitrary assumptions or subjectivist layers.
There are descriptive, explanatory and predictive hypotheses. A descriptive hypothesis is an assumption about the essential properties of objects, the nature of the connections between the individual elements of the object being studied.
An explanatory hypothesis is an assumption about cause-and-effect relationships. A predictive hypothesis is an assumption about the trends and patterns of development of the object of study.
Theory is a logically generalized knowledge, a conceptual system of knowledge that adequately and holistically reflects a certain area of reality.
It has the following properties:
1. Theory is one of the forms of rational
mental activity.
2. Theory is a holistic system of reliable knowledge.
3. It not only describes a set of facts, but also explains them, that is, it reveals the origin and development of phenomena and processes, their internal and external relations, causal and other dependencies, etc.
Empiricallevel research is characterized by the predominance of sensory cognition (study outside world through the senses). At this level, forms of theoretical knowledge are present, but have a subordinate meaning. The structure of the empirical level of research consists of facts, empirical generalizations and laws (dependencies). Empirical generalization is a logical process of transition from individual to general, from general to more general knowledge. For example, the transition from the concept of “heat” to the concept of “energy”, as well as the result of this process: a generalized concept, judgment, law of science, theory.
Empirical laws reflect regularity in phenomena, stability in the relationships between observed phenomena. These laws theoretical knowledge are not. Unlike theoretical laws, which reveal the essential connections of reality, empirical laws reflect a more superficial level of dependencies. Such laws include, for example, crime laws. K. Marx wrote that “crimes taken on a large scale reveal in their number and in their classification the same pattern as natural phenomena.”
Interaction of empirical and theoretical levels research is that:
1) the totality of facts forms the practical basis of the theory or hypothesis;
2) facts can confirm or refute a theory;
3) a scientific fact is always permeated with theory, since it cannot be formulated without a system of concepts, interpreted without theoretical ideas;
4) empirical study V modern science predetermined, guided by theory.
2.2 Fundamental, applied, researchdesign developments and other types of scientific research
Types of scientific research are different stages of the movement of science to practice:
Fundamental;
Applied;
Research design and development;
Monodisciplinary and interdisciplinary;
Analytical and complex
Basic research:
Fundamental research is aimed at obtaining new knowledge about the phenomena and laws of reality. They do not pursue any practical goals. The researcher is interested in truth for its own sake, and he seeks it, not knowing what benefit he will bring.
Basic research is divided into:
Free (search) - is of an individual nature, the scientist works in a free search mode, has freedom in choosing methods and directions of his activity. His new ideas can change the entire course of the search.
Targeted - the direction of scientific research is firmly defined, as a rule, it is carried out collectively, within a certain organization (special scientific groups, laboratories, departments are created), since the path is quite clear, we can talk about planning the costs of technical and material resources.
Applied research:
Their peculiarity is that they are directly aimed at obtaining the knowledge necessary for solving practical problems. We are talking about solving a certain class of practical problems in general view. A scientist does not have the right to step aside to explore other possibilities, even if they promise to yield interesting results.
The usual condition for funding applied research is the provision of work plans and schedules and regular reports on their implementation.
Research design developments:
Unlike applied research, their goal is to complete a specific technical task. For example, creating a project for any device, preparing technological production diagrams, etc. They are not aimed at searching for new scientific knowledge; they are based on the results of Fundamental and Applied Science. To solve specific design and engineering problems.
The point is not to discover something, but to invent something.
If a scientist in fundamental and applied research strives to describe and explain something that exists but is unknown, then the developer must invent and create something that did not previously exist. In the first case - “how is a thing constructed?”, in the second - “how to build a thing?”.
Research development has a special place in the system of sciences.
On the one hand, this is a specific type scientific activity, on the other hand - engineering activity, which consists of solving technical and technological problems based on “ready-made” scientific knowledge.
Fundamental research in the field of aerodynamics is aimed at elucidating the patterns of movement of gases and bodies in a gaseous environment (the scientist strives to understand the essence of aerodynamic processes, builds models and theoretical schemes....)
Applied research is carried out with the aim of building a theory of research for solving certain practical problems (wing theory, propeller theory, aircraft dynamics, etc.)
Research developments are associated with conducting research aimed at solving technical problems that arise when creating specific projects aircraft(here we already use data not only from aerodynamics, but also from other sciences, for example chemistry)
Fundamental and applied research and research developments are not separated by rigid boundaries and are closely intertwined. (Fig.1)
Rice. 1. The path connecting science with industrial practice
Monodisciplinary(conducted within a separate science) and interdisciplinary(conducted at the intersection of several scientific disciplines). Analytical/single-factor (aimed at identifying one, most significant, in the researcher’s opinion, aspect of reality) and complex(carried out using a system of methods and techniques through which scientists strive to cover the maximum possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied).
2.3 Search, critical, clarifying and reproducing types
According to the purpose of conducting all scientific research can be divided into several types: exploratory, critical, clarifying and reproducing.
Search engines(implies an attempt to solve a problem that no one has posed or solved using a similar method. Sometimes similar studies are called research “at random”: “Let’s try this, maybe something will work out.” Scientific work of this kind is aimed at obtaining fundamentally new results in little-explored area).
Critical(conducted in order to refute an existing theory, model, hypothesis, law, etc., or to test which of two alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality. Critical research is carried out in those areas where a rich theoretical and empirical stock of knowledge has been accumulated and there are proven techniques for implementation of the experiment).
Clarifying(their goal is to establish the boundaries within which the theory predicts facts and empirical patterns. Usually, in comparison with the original experimental sample, the research conditions, object, and methodology change. Thus, it is recorded to which area of reality the previously obtained theoretical knowledge extends) .
Reproducing(its goal is an exact repetition of the experiment of predecessors to determine the validity, reliability and objectivity of the results obtained. The results of any study must be repeated during a similar experiment conducted by another scientist with the appropriate competence. Therefore, after the discovery of a new effect, pattern, creation of a new technique and etc. an avalanche of reproducing studies arises, designed to verify the results of the discoverers. Reproducing research is the basis of all science).
Conclusion
The role of science is clearly manifested in the fact that in modern conditions scientific knowledge and scientific methods are increasingly being used to solve large-scale problems social development, its programming, etc. At the present time, science has a special place in solving global problems modernity - environmental, problems of resources, food, problems of war and peace, etc.
List of used literature,Internet resources
science empirical applied research
1. Alekseev P.V., Panin A.V. “Philosophy” M.: Prospekt, 2000
2. New philosophical encyclopedia. 1-4 vol. M.: Thought. 2001.
3. Alabuzhem P.M., Geronimus V.B., Minkevich et al. Theory of similarity and dimensions. Modeling. -- M.: Higher. school, 1968. -- 320 p.
4. Venetsky I.G., Kildishev G.S. Probability theory and mathematical statistics. - M.: Statistics, 1975. - 264 p.
5. Shklyar M.F. “Fundamentals of Scientific Research” Dashkov and Co., 2012
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Any scientific research - from the creative concept to the final design of scientific work - is carried out very individually. But it is still possible to identify general methodological approaches to its implementation.
Modern scientific and theoretical thinking strives to penetrate into the essence of the phenomena and processes being studied. This is possible provided that there is a holistic approach to the object of study, consideration of this object in its emergence and development, i.e. application of a historical approach.
To study in the scientific sense means to conduct exploratory research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy, dreams, based on real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors in scientific research.
To study in the scientific sense means to be scientifically objective. Facts cannot be thrown aside just because they are difficult to explain or find practical application for. The fact is that the essence of what is new in science is not always visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts and even discoveries, due to the fact that their significance is poorly disclosed, can remain in the reserve of science for a long time and not be used in practice.
The development of an idea to the stage of solving a problem is usually carried out as a planned process of scientific research. Science also knows accidental discoveries, but only planned, well-equipped ones. modern means scientific research reliably allows us to reveal and deeply understand objective patterns in nature. In the future, the process of targeted and general ideological processing of the initial plan continues, clarifications, changes, additions are made, and the planned research scheme is developed.
Scientific research is purposeful knowledge, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories.
When characterizing scientific research, they usually point to the following: distinctive features:
this is necessarily a purposeful process, the achievement of a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;
this is a process aimed at searching for something new, at creativity, at discovering the unknown, at putting forward original ideas, at new coverage of the issues under consideration;
it is characterized by systematicity: here the research process itself and its results are ordered and brought into a system;
it is characterized by strict evidence, consistent substantiation of the generalizations and conclusions made.
The object of scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.
The goal, the immediate tasks of scientific and theoretical research are to find what a number of individual phenomena have in common, to reveal the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, and develop, that is, to penetrate into their deep essence.
Basic means of scientific and theoretical research:
a set of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and combined into a single system;
a set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming characteristic language science.
The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works(articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and only then, after their comprehensive assessment, are they used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a distilled, generalized form, included in governing documents.
There are several classifications of scientific research: according to the method of financing, duration, methods used, goals and subjects.
According to the method of financing, research work is divided into state budgetary, financed from public funds, and contractual, financed by customer organizations on the basis of contracts concluded between them and the executors. IN recent years a lot of research is carried out under grants with the support of special funds of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research, Russian Foundation for Humanities, etc.
Based on duration, they are divided into long-term, developed over several years, and short-term, completed in one year.
Let's consider the types of research work depending on the research methods used. In one case, the basis for the accumulation of empirical material is experiment, in another - a comparative study of objects, in a third - the study and generalization of historical and scientific material, etc. You can even use it in one job various types accumulation of material and coverage of facts. In any research, the central task is to accumulate one’s own, scientifically new materials, process and generalize them, and most importantly, analyze and explain the facts, followed by the formulation of conclusions and proposals.
Let us highlight the following types of research work: experimental, methodological, computational and analytical, descriptive, historical and biographical, mixed type.
Experimental research involves the use of proven methods for clarifying important particular issues of the topic; development of original devices to perform assigned tasks; laboratory testing of a new method; its production verification; analysis and synthesis of materials; conclusions. The basis for accumulating facts is experiment. What is important here is its justification, the characteristics of the means and methods, the assessment of measurement errors, and the assessment of the reliability of the results obtained.
Recently it has gained great popularity special kind experimental research - testing. The test is a special task or system of tasks for studying mental abilities, level of knowledge acquisition, etc. The procedure itself is simple and does not require complex equipment. The results of test solutions allow quantitative expression and open up the possibility of their mathematical processing.
Along with testing, an interview or questionnaire may be conducted. A conversation for a teacher, as a rule, has the goal of clarifying data about the student’s knowledge determined during test work or testing, identify the ability to express one’s own thoughts, justify assumptions or actions. The interview involves personal contact between the tester and the subject; 10-15 minutes are allotted per student, during which time there are no other students. Questions are prepared in advance; if you have difficulty answering, you can ask one or two leading questions.
The advantage of questionnaires is the ability to quickly obtain material. Questionnaires are also prepared in advance; questions must be clear, clear, excluding ambiguous answers.
Questions in questionnaires and tests can be open (requiring an independent answer from the subject) or closed (in which the answer is selected from the proposed ones).
Purpose methodological research is to improve the methods of manufacturing products in production, mining; application of new technologies in pedagogy; improvement of the education process; studying the determination of the quality of a method and increasing its accuracy when studying nature, society or the process of cognition; identification of qualitatively new methods. The empirical basis can be data from an experiment or analysis of previous material. Features include the identification of new characteristics of the method and evidence in their favor; objective assessment of a specific method or technique; development of something new and justification of its advantages; historical continuity of the proposed method; economic justification.
Calculation and analytical research is applied. During its implementation, methods of measurement, experimentation, and modeling are used. G. Galileo argued: “We must measure everything that is commensurable and make measurable that which is not yet measurable.” The features of such research are considered to be: obtaining experimental data as accurate and reliable scientific facts; mathematical understanding of the processes and results of the research; study of the accuracy and error of calculations, taking into account practical application.
In philosophy, mathematics, social sciences, less often in geology, medicine, astronomy, biology, descriptive research is performed. This is explained by the originality and complexity of the objects, processes and phenomena being studied, as well as the impossibility of conducting an experiment due to their abstraction. The empirical basis consists of primary sources, historical facts. Among the research methods, analogy, comparison, consideration from a new angle, etc. are widely used. Characteristic features - an accurate, documented description of scientific facts and primary sources (existing but not studied); revealing the essence of facts, ideas in interrelation and identifying the laws of their development; analysis, synthesis of factual material, determination of conclusions; disclosure of qualitative manifestations of facts, the essence of things based on a comprehensive analysis of materials, determination of patterns of phenomena.
In descriptive research, primary sources are important, objectively existing, but not yet open to practice, not fully known. They are varied and require a comprehensive assessment of their importance, reliability and validity. Researchers cannot limit themselves to analyzing and generalizing only large phenomena. It is necessary to carefully study and analyze individual facts that play a decisive role in the study of the problem. To specific requirements sociological research include observation under given conditions of place and time.
From a number of descriptive studies, historical and biographical studies are separated into a separate group due to the uniqueness of the tasks and methodological methods for developing the material. According to content they are divided into scientific biographies; research on worldview and creativity; analysis and summary of the historical role wonderful people; research on the priority of discoveries, etc. In such studies, the actual content of the development of concepts and ideas, their historical conditioning; the character and characteristics, the contribution of various peoples, individual scientists are clarified; the influence of personality, as well as economic and social structure society on the content of the concept, science; possible prospects are determined.
A type of historical and biographical research is methodological, the purpose of which is to find the patterns of development of an object. Development is understood as the accumulation of new facts and qualitative change, enrichment of the content of a concept or theory.
Recently, the attitude towards the history of science has changed, partly in connection with the emergence and development of scientific studies. At the same time, both the understanding of science as a whole and the understanding of the subject and the goals of individual disciplines studying the development of science and its various aspects, including the history of mathematics, were transformed. Most important task The history of science is considered to be the disclosure of the laws of the movement of science and historical and scientific reconstruction, the basis of which is the study of primary sources.
The study of scientific knowledge of the past begins with a historiographical description of the empirical basis, which includes materials from archives, autobiographies, teaching aids past years, monographs, memoirs of contemporaries, etc., which further require critical reflection. The main source is the totality scientific texts, which record human knowledge about the world characteristic of the period under study. This includes texts from ancient papyri, clay tablets, stone steles, scientific articles, training courses, personal correspondence of scientists, archival information, etc. The problems of their interpretation and classification are dealt with by a special scientific discipline- source study.
In the course of historical-biographical and historical-scientific research, the subject always deals with a scientific or scientific-philosophical text. Giving a historical text a clear meaning, meaning its interpretation or interpretation, is a complex thought process. The researcher must reflect both the internal content - the author’s concept, the “system” of the thinker, abstracting from the subsequent evolution of the system or teaching under study, and the external content - historical, going beyond the scope of the author’s works historical tradition, including his predecessors. Thus, one of the methodological principles- historical and logical. In addition, in the 20th century. a special type of interpretation has been formed, associated with social, economic, political institutions, religion, literature, and art.
When considering the development of a concept or theory, it is important to take into account not only the facts, but also the reasons for their occurrence, laws, and the logic of development. Characteristic feature Many studies aim to cover knowledge as an integral, historically developing system; for this purpose, a periodization of the history of an object is usually introduced.
Scientific research is classified according to the type of connection with social production and the degree of importance for national economy; intended purpose; sources of funding and duration of the study. Let's look at two of them in more detail.
Based on the type of connection with social production, scientific research is divided into work aimed at creating new technological processes, machines, structures, increasing production efficiency, improving working conditions, developing a person’s personality, etc.
In the field of commodity research and examination, this can be research related to increasing the efficiency of a trading enterprise, organizing the work of commodity experts and other trade workers, improving the culture of service, etc.
According to the intended purpose, there are three types of scientific research: fundamental, applied and development (Fig. 1).
Fundamental research is aimed at the discovery and study of new phenomena and laws of nature, at the creation of new principles of research. Their goal is to expand the scientific knowledge of society, to establish what can be used in practical human activities. Such research is conducted on the border between the known and the unknown and has the greatest degree of uncertainty.
Fundamental research in commodity science includes the study of the material nature of goods, the study of processes; leaks in goods during storage; study of external and internal factors influencing the consumer properties of goods at all stages of product distribution. Fundamental research in the field of examination is the development of the scientific foundations of commodity examination, methods for detecting falsification, etc.
Fundamental research in commodity science is often carried out at the intersection with other sciences. For food merchandising, this is primarily natural sciences- biochemistry, chemistry, microbiology; as well as economics and other sciences.
Applied research is aimed at finding ways to use the laws of nature to create new and improve existing means and methods of human activity. The purpose of applied research is to establish how the scientific knowledge obtained as a result can be used basic research, in practical human activity.
As a result of applied research based on scientific concepts technical concepts are created. Applied research, in turn, is divided into exploratory, research and development work:
- - exploratory research is aimed at establishing the factors influencing the object, finding ways to create new technologies and equipment based on the methods proposed as a result of fundamental research;
- - as a result of research work, new technologies, pilot plants, instruments, etc. are created;
- - the purpose of development work is the selection of design characteristics that determine the logical basis of the design.
As a result of fundamental and applied research, a new scientific and scientific and technical information. The purposeful process of converting such information into a form suitable for use in industry is usually called development. It is aimed at creating new equipment, materials, technologies or improving existing ones. The ultimate goal development is the preparation of applied research materials for implementation.
Educational research work students and the scientific research work of students in the field of commodity science and examination is mainly in the nature of applied research or development. Applied research can be exploratory (to establish factors influencing a product on various stages product distribution; can be aimed at finding ways to create new technologies for food production based on the results of fundamental research, etc.), research (aimed at creating new technologies, pilot plants, etc.). Developments can be aimed at creating new food products and technologies for their production; creation and approval of regulatory documentation for new products, organization of the release of a pilot batch of a new product, etc.
Modern scientific and theoretical thinking strives to penetrate into the essence of the phenomena and processes being studied. This is possible with a holistic approach to the object of study, consideration of this object in its emergence and development, that is, in the application of a historical approach.
Study in a scientific sense- this means conducting exploratory research, as if looking into the future. Imagination, fantasy and dreams, based on real achievements of science and technology, are the most important factors in scientific research. It also means being scientifically objective. Facts cannot be thrown aside just because they are difficult to explain or find practical application for them: the essence of what is new in science is not always visible to the researcher himself. New scientific facts, and even discoveries, due to the fact that their significance is poorly disclosed, can remain in the reserve of science for a long time and not be used in practice.
The development of an idea to the stage of solving a problem usually occurs as a planned process of scientific research. Science is also aware of accidental discoveries, but only planned scientific research, well equipped with modern means, can reliably reveal and deeply understand objective patterns in nature. In the future, the process of targeted and general ideological processing of the initial plan continues, clarifications, changes, additions are made, and the planned research scheme is developed.
Research – this is purposeful cognition, the results of which appear in the form of a system of concepts, laws and theories. When characterizing scientific research, they usually point to its following distinctive features: signs:
This is a must goal-oriented process, achieving a consciously set goal, clearly formulated tasks;
This is a process aimed at searching for something new, for creativity, for discovering the unknown, for putting forward original ideas, for new coverage of the issues under consideration.
Research characterized systematic: here the research process itself and its results are ordered and brought into system; it is characterized by strict evidence and consistent justification of the generalizations and conclusions made.
Object scientific and theoretical research is not just a separate phenomenon, a specific situation, but a whole class of similar phenomena and situations, their totality.
Target, immediate tasks scientific and theoretical research consists of finding what a number of individual phenomena have in common, revealing the laws according to which such phenomena arise, function, and develop, i.e., penetrating into their deep essence.
As main funds scientific and theoretical research uses the following: a set of scientific methods, comprehensively substantiated and integrated into a system; a set of concepts, strictly defined terms, interconnected and forming the characteristic language of science.
The results of scientific research are embodied in scientific works (articles, monographs, textbooks, dissertations, etc.) and then, after their comprehensive assessment, are used in practice, taken into account in the process of practical knowledge and, in a generalized form, included in governing documents.
There are:
1. Empirical research: they do not have a theoretical basis, they allow one to accumulate only initial scientific facts.
2. Theoretical research: some theoretical generalizations on the basis of which new theoretical conclusions are formulated.
By character research is distinguished:
Fundamental - knowledge of reality without taking into account the practical effect of applying knowledge.
Applied - carried out in order to obtain knowledge that should be used to solve a specific practical problem.
Monodisciplinary – carried out within the framework of a separate science.
Interdisciplinary - carried out within several sciences.
Analytical – aimed at identifying one aspect of reality that is most significant in the researcher’s opinion.
Complex - focused on covering the maximum possible number of significant parameters of the reality being studied.
By purpose carrying out:
Search - carried out if the stated problem has not been posed before, or the study attempts to solve it in a new way.
Critical - carried out in order to refute an existing theory, model, laws, or to test which of 2 alternative hypotheses more accurately predicts reality.
Clarifying - aimed at establishing the area, manifestation of theories or empirical patterns.
Reproducing - based on the exact repetition of previous studies to determine reliable, reliable and objective results obtained.
They also highlight:
Review and analytical research - selection and study of literature on the research topic with a consistent systematic presentation and analysis of the processed material.
Review-critical - review + criticism of what has already been done on the problem and the corresponding conclusions.
Theoretical – contains the theoretical provisions of the author, aimed at solving the problem posed. In such a study, the logic and consistency of judgments should be traced.
Empirical (experimental) - based on real, reliable facts. It does not involve creating artificial situations to identify and collect the necessary facts. In such a study, one simply observes, records, describing what happens in life without the intervention of the researcher. It happens descriptive(new facts are obtained and described experimentally) and explanatory(collection, analysis + explanation).
Methodological research consists of developing, justifying, and testing in practice according to the criteria of validity, reliability, and accuracy of a new methodology.
Experimental research is the most difficult and time-consuming. In an experiment, an artificial situation is always created, the causes of the phenomena being studied are identified, the actions of these causes are strictly controlled, the actions of these causes are assessed, and statistical relationships between the phenomena are identified.
Stages of scientific research
Any scientific research includes a number of stages.
1. Statement of the scientific problem
A problem is a theoretical or factual issue that requires resolution.
Types of scientific problems:
The problem of describing the phenomenon
The problem of identifying patterns
The problem of explanations
The problem of prediction.
Stages of problem formulation:
1) detection of information deficiency
2) awareness of the need to eliminate this deficit
3) description problematic situation in natural language
The problem must be relevant. The problem is chosen based on preferences and interests.
At this stage, the research topic is formulated; it should not exceed 6-7 words.
The overall goal is an image of the future result to which the research should lead. The most common are:
Description of a new fact or phenomenon;
Identification of the relationship between mental phenomena;
Studying the dynamics of mental phenomena;
Generalization as highlighting the most significant phenomena.
The object is determined - this is a fragment real world towards which research effort is directed.
There are 2 approaches to defining an object:
1) Object - specific mental phenomena
2) Object-measurement element, i.e. those units that are subject to measurement procedures in the study.
The object of research can be:
Individual, dyad, group.
A subject is certain aspects, properties, characteristics of an object that are of scientific interest in connection with the problem being solved. The subject of the study is the psyche (mental processes, states, qualities, etc.). Tasks-goals second order, through the solution of which the final goal is achieved.
A preliminary hypothesis can be put forward.
2. Theoretical analysis problems
Work with the information that is available on this problem, then the formation of the author’s model of the studied phenomenon, clarification of the scientific problem.
3. Formulation of research hypotheses
A hypothesis is a scientifically based statement of a probabilistic nature about the essence of the phenomena of reality being studied. Signs of a good hypothesis:
Adequacy to the problem
Credibility
Verifiability
4. Study planning.
A research program is built, methods and specific techniques for its implementation are selected.
5. Conducting research according to the planned plan
The results are recorded
6. Analysis and interpretation of the obtained data.
Primary analysis of data, their mathematical processing, interpretation, the initial hypothesis is checked for reliability, new facts are generalized, and patterns are formulated.
7. Formulation of conclusions.
