Syntax as a branch of the science of language. Syntax as a section of grammar Sentences simple and complex

Subject and fundamental concepts of syntax. The term “syntax” (from the Greek syntaxis “composition”, “construction”, “order”, “structure”) is used in two meanings: 1) syntactic structure, a special tier of language, including a set of syntactic phenomena; 2) a section of grammar that studies the laws and rules for constructing coherent speech in its individual fragments.

Syntax in the meaning of “syntactic structure, a special tier of language” correlates with “an objectively existing system of syntactic means and rules for their use, which is at the disposal of the speaking community”, “directly correlates with the process of thinking and the process of communication : units of other levels language system participate in the formation of thought and its communicative expression only through syntax. This is the specificity of syntax as a real phenomenon and as a scientific object.”

As a section of grammar, syntax is focused on the scientific comprehension of the syntactic structure of language and the rules for constructing speech. The object of study in syntax is communicative language means of varying complexity and their constituent parts through their relationship to the whole. Syntax is characterized as “the organizing center of grammar.”

The term “syntax” has recently also been used to refer to subsections allocated within the “Syntax” section (for example, they talk about the syntax of a phrase, the syntax of a sentence, etc.), and directions in syntactic science (structural syntax, semantic syntax, functional syntax etc.).

The fundamental concepts of syntax as the science of the syntactic structure of language, the laws and rules of constructing coherent speech are: “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category”.

The six concepts mentioned - “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category” - are initial, cross-cutting for syntax, without them scientific description and comprehension is hardly possible syntactic structure of the language. These concepts are closely related to each other, so any of them can be characterized only using correlative concepts.

In this introduction, the concepts of “syntactic connection”, “syntactic units”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic form”, “syntactic category” are given the most preliminary, very abstract characteristics. The specific content of these concepts, in other words, a kind of “ascent from the abstract to the concrete” when interpreting them, will be carried out in the course of presenting the content of individual sections of the syntax.

Syntactic connection- these are various kinds of formal and meaningful relationships between the components of individual fragments of speech (see the section “The doctrine of syntactic connection”). So, for example, in the phrase copper samovar words reveal a connection between themselves as meaningful (adjective copper denotes an attributive feature of a noun samovar), and formal ( dependent adjective copper formally consistent with the reference name samovar in the masculine gender singular, nominative case).

Syntactic unit- this is a certain fragment of coherent speech, characterized by a different volume and possessing to varying degrees the characteristics of the whole, i.e. coherent speech. Syntactic units differ from each other in structural, content and functional characteristics.

The undisputed syntactic units are the phrase and the simple sentence. In various university textbooks, along with the named syntactic units, other syntactic units are distinguished, more high level- a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole. This book also discusses a lower-level unit called the term syntaxeme.

The constitutive syntactic features of each of the named syntactic units are reflected in the specific trinity “meaning – function – form”, peculiar only to it. The dialectical trinity “meaning – function – form” can be represented as a set of questions “what? - For what? - How?".

Syntactic meaning– this is abstract content expressed in syntactic units. The essence of the concept of “syntactic meaning” can be expressed in the question “what?”: WHAT means, WHAT expresses, WHAT this or that reflects syntactic unit?

Syntactic units can express different syntactic meanings: attributive (attributive), adverbial of various types (causal, spatial, target, temporal, conditional, etc.), objective of various types (direct object, instrumental object, addressable object, etc.). ), the meaning of predicativeness, etc. So, for example, in the phrase copper samovar defining relations are expressed in a phrase read a book - direct object relations, etc.

The most abstract syntactic meaning inherent in any sentence is predicativity, which characterizes the content of the sentence through its relationship to reality - either as a real fact that has temporal certainty ( Children play lapta; The children played lapta; Children will play rounders), or as an unreal fact without temporal certainty ( Children would play rounders; Let the children play rounders).

To denote syntactic meaning, other synonymous terms are also used - “syntactic relations”, “semantic (substantive) relations”, “syntactic meaning”.

Syntax function– purpose, role of a syntactic unit, syntactic means and categories in speech, in a communicative act, in the construction of a communicative unit. The essence of the concept of “function” can be expressed by the question “for what?”: WHAT are syntactic units, syntactic means and categories in speech used for? Yes, the phrase copper samovar intended to be material for the construction of communicative units (cf.: There was a copper samovar on the table; We drank tea from a copper samovar; Mother went out into the yard with a copper samovar in her hands etc.). As part of a sentence, each of the constituent components of a given phrase performs the function of an independent member of the sentence, i.e. fits into the positional structure of the sentence. The importance of the concept of function for syntax is noted by many modern scientists.

The concepts of “syntactic meaning” and “syntactic function” are quite similar in content. Syntactic meaning can be created through functioning, so we can talk about the functional semantics of linguistic units. On the other hand, the function of a linguistic unit can be determined by its syntactic semantics; in such cases we can talk about a semantic function.

The difference between the concepts of “syntactic meaning” and “syntactic function” is as follows : the concept of “syntactic meaning” is aimed at the internal content of a syntactic unit, considered separately, outside of relation to the including structure; the concept of “syntactic function” is focused on identifying the role of a syntactic unit in the composition of units of a higher level.

Function and meaning in some cases may overlap and be isosemic, while in other cases they clearly diverge. For example: syntactic meaning of syntaxeme at school– adverbial place; in a sentence it can perform different syntactic functions - as an isosemic function, that is, the function of an adverbial place ( At school there is a garden), and a non-isosemic function, for example, a function of inconsistent definition ( Garden at school very well maintained). It should be noted that in the second case the syntax at school, being an inconsistent definition, still retains its internal spatial semantics.

Syntactic form is a concept that generalizes the structural features of syntactic units. The essence of this concept is expressed by the general question “how?”: HOW is the syntactic unit constructed, HOW is it organized structurally? The structural characteristics of syntactic units depend on the complexity of the structure of the latter. The more complex the syntactic unit, the greater the range of structural features it has.

The formal, structural characteristics of syntactic units include, in particular, the means of communication presented in a syntactic unit, syntactically significant ways of morphological or syntactic expression of its components, structural diagrams (models) of constructing syntactic units, etc.

For example, the structural features of the phrase copper samovar can be characterized as follows: this is a two-component (binary) combination of words, consisting of a supporting noun samovar masculine, having the form of the nominative case, singular, and its dependent adjective copper, which agrees with the reference word in the masculine gender, singular, nominative case; the connection between the components is expressed using the ending of the adjective. This phrase is constructed according to the typical structural scheme AN, where A is the sign-symbol of an adjective (and other adjectival words), N is the sign-symbol of a noun. The syntactic form acts as a carrier of the syntactic meaning and syntactic function of a particular linguistic unit.

To characterize various aspects of the formal structure of syntactic units, the concepts of “syntactic structure”, “syntactic construction”, “structural diagram” can also be used.

The concepts of “syntactic meaning”, “syntactic function”, “syntactic form” together constitute the dialectical trinity “meaning – function – form”, reflecting the relationship and interaction of content, functional and structural features of syntactic units.

Syntactic category is a concept denoting the unity of a certain syntactic meaning and a set of diverse forms of its expression. If we assume that a linguistic category is “any group of linguistic elements distinguished on the basis of any general property", then a syntactic category can be defined as any group of syntactic elements, distinguished on the basis of the commonality of any of their syntactically significant properties. And any commonality (sameness) presupposes the presence of distinctive properties in the elements being combined. So, for example, the syntactic category of modality represents the unity of the syntactic meaning of reality/irreality and the set of forms of expression of this meaning (forms of mood, intonation, particles, etc.); The syntactic category of subjectivity represents the unity of the syntactic meaning of the carrier of the predicative feature and the many different ways of expressing it: the nominative case ( I I feel chills), dative or accusative subject ( To me Cold; Me chills), instrumental subject ( The house is worth it carpenters ), personal verb endings( Love yu wander through the autumn forest).

Comparative characteristics of syntactic units. It should be noted that the question of the number of syntactic units has not received an unambiguous solution either in the scientific or educational literature. In different university textbooks and manuals, the number of syntactic units ranges from two to five. In this case, it is possible to identify different degrees of recognition of the identified syntactic units. If only two syntactic units are distinguished, then this is necessarily a phrase and a sentence. If we talk about three syntactic units, then, as a rule, this is a phrase, a simple sentence and a complex sentence. If we're talking about about four syntactic units, then, of course, a phrase, a simple sentence, a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole are recognized as such.

The logic of the movement of thought when identifying syntactic units also involves identifying an elementary syntactic unit from which phrases are built, as well as, partially, simple sentences. Such an elementary syntactic unit received a terminological designation through the concept of “syntaxeme” (or “syntactic form of a word”) and is described in detail in the works of G.A. Zolotov.

Taking into account the above, our book adopts a five-component system of syntactic units : syntaxeme, phrase, simple sentence, complex sentence, complex syntactic whole. Let us present the preliminary, most general characteristics the five listed syntactic units.

Syntaxeme(or syntactic form) refers to the primary, elementary units of syntax, from which syntactic units of more than one form are formed and divided into high order– phrases and simple sentences: in the closet, out of fear, by law, from clay, read, run, man, books etc. Syntaxemes are carriers of elementary syntactic meanings - subjective, object, attributive, spatial, causal, target and other types of relations. The systematized repertoire of syntaxemes as elementary syntactic units received a lexicographic representation in the Syntactic Dictionary of G.A. Zolotov.

Syntaxeme is a unit that links morphology and syntax : it represents a morphological form viewed from a syntactic perspective, i.e. as an element of syntactic constructions. For example, the word form due to illness when viewed through the lens of syntax, causal meaning is assigned. In accordance with this meaning, this word form can function as part of a sentence as an adverbial cause ( He didn't come to class due to illness), How inconsistent definition with additional causal meaning( There is no penalty for absence due to illness). As a syntactic unit, a syntaxeme has its own formal features, syntactic meaning (it is the bearer of elementary meaning), and functional properties.

Collocation is a minimal syntactic unit in which the signs of coherent speech are presented explicitly. A phrase is a grammatical combination of two or more significant words, grammatically formalized through a subordinating relationship, resulting from the distribution of any reference word: blue scarf, laughing fun, river bank. According to their form and syntactic meaning, syntaxes and phrases cannot perform a communicative function; they participate in the construction of communicative units and only within their framework participate in the communication process. Therefore, syntaxeme and phrase are syntactic units at the pre-communicative level. Within the framework of syntax, they perform a nominative function, being the names of individual fragments of situations designated in sentences.

C o m u n i c a t i o n units (or to units communicative level syntax) include a simple sentence, a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole. It is these units, in their meaning and structure, that are intended to perform a communicative function.

Simple sentence- this is a minimal, monopredicative communicative unit, which contains one grammatical core, which expresses the unified relationship of the entire content of the sentence to reality. For example: A volatile limestone haze hovered over the lowland(L. Leonov); Silence in the stuffy air(F. Tyutchev); I'm tired of waiting(N.V. Gogol); It was quiet and damp in the forest(V. Nabokov).

Complex sentence is a communicative polypredicative syntactic unit, the components of which are simple sentences interconnected by one or another type of syntactic connection. The polypredicative nature of a complex sentence is due to the fact that each of the simple sentences in its composition has its own predicativeness, represented in its predicative core by the categories of tense and mood, and the entire complex sentence as a whole expresses multiple references to reality. For example: The sun rose higher and higher, the city was evenly illuminated, and the street came to life...(V. Nabokov); The silence of the taiga and mountains would have crushed people, if not for the river - it alone made noise throughout the entire area(V. Shukshin).

Complex syntactic whole is a minimal fragment of text consisting of simple and complex sentences, interconnected by means of interphrase communication and united by a common microtheme. For example: The dispute between generations is the law of life. Each new generation begins by challenging the experience of the previous one. This law applies not only on a broad public scale(K.Ya. Vanshenkin).

Between the named five syntactic units - syntaxemes, phrases, simple sentences, complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes - hierarchical relations are established of sequential entry into each other (when viewed from below) and sequential division of more complex syntactic units into simple ones until the limit of their division is obtained ( when viewed from above).

In the five-component system of syntactic units, the simple sentence occupies a central place. This is determined primarily by the fact that a simple sentence is a minimal communicative syntactic unit designed to convey relatively complete information. In addition, a simple sentence is a kind of starting point a reference point for a complex sentence and a complex syntactic whole (since a simple sentence participates in their formation) and an end point for a phrase and syntaxeme (since it is in its composition that the named units find their application). The centrality of the position of the simple sentence in the system of syntactic units is also due to the fact that it is on the material of the simple sentence that many theoretical concepts of the sentence are built, developed within the framework of the absolute majority scientific directions in syntax.

The structure of syntax as a branch of the science of language. Syntax as a section of grammar has its own internal structure. In this book, the syntax is presented as a complex of eight sections, each of which is united by the unity of the subject of description:

1. The doctrine of syntactic connection.

2. Syntax of the syntaxeme.

3. Syntax of the phrase.

4. Syntax of a simple sentence.

5. Syntax of a complicated sentence.

6. Syntax of a complex sentence.

7. Syntax of a sentence with direct speech.

8. Syntax of a complex syntactic whole.

The first section of syntax is devoted to the description of syntactic connections. The doctrine of syntactic connection is highlighted in the first section, since the subject of syntax is connected speech and the initial concept of syntax is the concept of connection.

Sections “Syntax of a syntax”, “Syntax of a phrase”, “Syntax of a simple sentence”, “Syntax of a complex sentence”, “Syntax of a complex syntactic whole” are highlighted according to the types of syntactic units.

A separate section is “Syntax of a complicated sentence.” It should be noted that a complicated sentence is not classified as a special syntactic unit in any of the known syntax textbooks. However, a complicated sentence has its own theory, its own system of terms, its own structural, semantic and functional features, which makes it possible to raise the question of the possibility of identifying the corresponding type of sentence as a special syntactic unit.

The selection of the section “Syntax of a sentence with direct speech” is due to the fact that this type of sentence, due to its specific content, constructive, and functional properties, cannot be unconditionally included either in the system of complex sentences or in the system of a complex syntactic whole. Due to the fact that sentences with direct speech are in transformational relationships with sentences with indirect speech, this section proposes a description general rules transforming sentences with direct speech into complex sentences with indirect speech.

Adjacent to “Syntax” as a section of the science of language “Punctuation”, included, along with “Spelling” and “Graphics”, in “Theory” writing».

Syntax in the language system. The sphere of syntax concentrates those linguistic means that directly serve for communication and without the use of which communication cannot be carried out. To formulate a thought, it is not enough to know only words and their forms; it is necessary to establish connections between them, to correlate what is being communicated with reality.

The direct connection of syntax with thinking and communication determines the place of syntax in the system of language tiers. The language is divided into phonetic, lexical, word-formative, morphological, and syntactic tiers. Syntax is the highest tier, “crowning the multi-story building of language.”

Like the upper tier of language, syntax relies on the lower tiers. As we move from the lower tiers of the language towards syntax, syntactically significant characteristics of linguistic units, categories, and phenomena studied in “Phonetics,” “Vocabulary,” “Word Formation,” and “Morphology” accumulate.

The syntactic side of the language begins to be studied in phonetics. Syntactically oriented element phonetic system language is intonation. Intonation design is a necessary feature of any communicative unit. Through intonation, communicatively significant components of statements are also highlighted.

The syntax detects connections with vocabulary. Syntactic features lexical units are taken into account in their communicatively oriented semantic classification. Typical meanings of lexical units predetermine the most frequent types of their functioning as part of a sentence. So, for example, words with a temporal meaning quite often function as adverbials of time: summer, winter, hour, year, minute etc.: In a year he joins the army; They came to us last in winter; In a minute the bell will ring. Words with spatial meaning are focused on frequency functioning as an adverbial adverbial place: On the way a winter, boring greyhound troika runs; Near the forest there is a small village; In the meadow horses are grazing. The lexical factor also predetermines the different functioning of identical morphological forms. Wed: come up to the table (circumstance of place) and come up by evening (circumstance of time) , speak with excitement (circumstance of the course of action) and speak with a friend (addition) .

The nature of the lexical meanings of words determines their syntactic activity or passivity. Syntactically active words have strong syntactic connections, or valences. Without the implementation of a strong connection, syntactically active words cannot function in speech. For example, in the phrase nail a picture to the wall supporting verb nail requires mandatory compatibility with word forms that answer the question what? and why? Words with strong connections are called relative. The number of relative words in the vocabulary of the language is large. The distribution of relative words by dependent word forms as part of a sentence is thus determined by two factors: a) the need to realize their strong connections and b) the need to present information in the most complete volume.

Syntactically passive words do not require mandatory extension ( be silent, table etc.). They can be used as part of an offer without distributors, i.e. absolutely (cf.: Everyone was silent; There was a table in the corner of the room). Such words are called absolute. Absolute words used as part of a sentence can be extended to expand information (cf.: In the corner of the room there was a large table with a vase.).

The syntax detects connections with word formation. Syntactically essential derivational features of words are prefixes in verbs; they dictate the prepositional case form to dependent names: in go V house, to drive to villages You go from rooms, at beat To wall etc. Syntactically oriented is transpositive word formation, or the so-called syntactic derivation: brave - courage, walk - walking, walking. This type of word formation carries out, for example, a formal translation of a characteristic concept into a noun and gives this concept the opportunity to function like an objective concept; compare: brave hunter And I am amazed at the hunter's courage.

The closest connection between syntax and morphology. Morphology, which studies parts of speech, their categories and forms, essentially serves syntax, everything morphological means and categories are intended to function in a sentence. Thus, the categories of gender, number, and case serve to establish connections between words in a phrase and a sentence. The verbal categories of person and voice participate in the constructive organization of the sentence (the person of the verb forms the predicative core of a two-part or one-part sentence; the voice forms active and passive constructions); mood and tense form the category of predicativity as the main, constitutive feature of a sentence. Functional parts of speech (conjunctions, prepositions, particles), interjections and modal words reveal their true existence only in the sphere of syntax.

Thus, the syntactic properties of linguistic units begin to be studied long before the “Syntax” section.

Syntax (from the Greek structure, order), in the traditional understanding, a set of grammatical rules of a language related to the construction of units that are more extensive than a word: phrases and sentences. There are also more expansive understandings of syntax, which go back to the terminological tradition of semiotics. In accordance with the first of them, the concept of syntax includes the rules for constructing any more complex language units from simpler ones; At the same time, it becomes possible to talk about intraword syntax or the syntax of the text. In an even more broad sense, syntax refers to the rules for constructing expressions of any sign systems, and not just verbal (verbal) language. With all existing understandings of the subject of syntax, the section of the corresponding theory (linguistics, semiotics) that deals with the study of syntactic units and rules is also called syntax.

Syntax as a section of grammar that studies the structure of coherent speech includes two main parts:

1) the doctrine of phrases and
2) the doctrine of supply.

Like grammar in general, syntax deals with the expression in language of some of the most frequently occurring meanings, such as “subject”, “feature”, “question”, “negation”, etc., and the way in which these meanings are expressed in syntax are hierarchically organized structures.

The boundaries of syntax and morphology cannot always be delineated with sufficient confidence: a word (subject of morphology), like a sentence, has a certain hierarchical structure, and morphological categories, like syntactic ones, are associated with the expression of some of the most frequent meanings. This explains the appearance of the general term “morphosyntax”. However, the structure of the word is much simpler than the structure of syntactic units in the proper sense. In addition, a sentence is capable of theoretically infinite complication: as a rule, a certain number of units can be included in its composition, and at the same time the sentence will not lose grammatical correctness, while words capable of potentially infinite complication are rare and far from common. all languages.

The peculiarity of syntax also lies in the fact that in the process of speech the speaker constantly creates new sentences, but extremely rarely new words. Thus, the creative aspect of language is clearly manifested in syntax, and therefore syntax is often defined as a section of grammar that studies the generation of speech - the formation of a theoretically unlimited set of sentences and texts from a limited set of words.

The study of syntax includes two large groups of problems: descriptive and theoretical. The purpose of a syntactic description is to formulate with the greatest completeness and accuracy the rules that distinguish correctly constructed sentences of a certain language from incorrect ones. The theoretical syntax is part general theory grammar; its task is to highlight the universal, i.e. a component of syntactic rules inherent in all languages and to establish the limits of the diversity that languages exhibit in the field of syntax.

Descriptive syntax includes techniques and methods parsing, which puts a sentence into correspondence with its grammatical structure, as well as the rules with the help of which grammatically correct sentences of a certain language can be distinguished from incorrect ones. These rules can be recognition rules, i.e. allowing you to answer the question of whether some arbitrary expression is a correct or incorrect expression of this language, or generating, i.e. carrying out the synthesis of correct sentences of a given language on the basis of elementary units and the rules of their connection.

The term “syntax” is used primarily to designate the syntactic structure of a language, which, together with the morphological structure, constitutes the grammar of the language. At the same time, “syntax” as a term is also applicable to the doctrine of syntactic structure; in this case, syntax is a branch of linguistics, the subject of study of which is the syntactic structure of language, i.e.

E. its syntactic units and connections and relationships between them.

Syntax (Greek σύνταξις - composition).

1. Section of grammar and semiotics, which includes questions about the structure of coherent speech (sign structures) and which includes two main parts:

The doctrine of phrases,

The doctrine of the sentence (correctly constructed statement). Syntax of the phrase. Sentence syntax.

2. The doctrine of the functioning in speech of various lexical and grammatical classes of words (parts of speech). Noun syntax. Verb syntax.

Dynamic aspect of syntax. Syntax, the object of study of which is a sentence as a communicative unit associated with a speech situation, possessing a certain intonation characteristic and word order as a means of expressing actual division.

Static aspect of syntax. Syntax, the object of study of which are structures not related to the context and situation of speech: sentence (as a predicative unit) and phrase (non-predicative unit).

The syntax is communicative. Syntax, the object of study of which is such problems as the actual and syntagmatic division of a sentence, the functioning of phrases in a sentence, the communicative paradigm of sentences, the typology of utterances, etc.

The syntax of a phrase exhibits syntactic properties individual words and establishes rules for their compatibility with other words, and these rules are determined by the grammatical features of the word as a certain part of speech.

Text syntax. Syntax, the object of study of which is not the structural patterns of phrases, simple and complex sentences, complex syntactic wholes, but various kinds of statements associated with the speech situation, as well as the structure of the text that goes beyond the boundaries of the complex syntactic whole. The study of these phenomena has great value for linguistic-stylistic and psycholinguistic analysis of text.

The syntax is functional. Syntax, the object of study of which is to clarify the role (function) of all syntactic means (units, constructions) in the construction of coherent speech. Syntax that uses the “from function to means” approach as a research method, that is, finding out by what grammatical means spatial, temporal, causal, target, etc. relationships are expressed (cf. the traditional “from means to function” approach, that is, finding out what functions a certain grammatical unit performs).

Syntax is a special branch of linguistic science

The structure of syntactic units, their meaning and interaction is studied by the section of grammar called “syntax”. It is a word of Greek origin meaning “composition” or “construction.” The section studies exactly how to construct the basic units of syntax from the entire set of words - phrases and sentences. If this section of grammar is mastered at the proper level, speech will be coherent, logical and varied.

Punctuation is inextricably linked with syntax. This is a system of rules governing the placement of punctuation marks. They help to divide the text into sentences, as well as logically arrange the syntactic units themselves.

Basic units

The basic units of syntax are the phrase and the clause. Each of them has its own characteristics and purpose. Units of syntax also include text and a complex syntactic whole.

Let's figure out what the basic units of syntax are. The table will help with this.

Collocation	Offer
Has no communicative function, serves for grammatical and semantic connection words among themselves.	The minimum communicative unit serves to formulate oral and written speech. Has predicative properties.

	One grammatical basis	Two grammatical bases
Catch with a net, wooden table, slow down, jump high.	The forest today is extremely beautiful. He felt very sad.	I came to pay my respects. Nature comes to life: in some places you can already hear the singing of arriving birds.

Subordinating connection

So, we said what syntax is, the basic units of syntax. Syntactic connections determine how the relationships between the latter are realized. There are two types of connections that can connect words in a phrase that make up the elements of a sentence: coordinating and subordinating.

When we talk about the latter, it means that it is possible to highlight main part and the one that will depend on her. In other words, the main one is from which the question must be asked, the dependent one is to which it is posed.

Let's look at examples: know (what?) exact time. In this phrase, “know” will be the main word, “time” will be the dependent word.

I don't know what tomorrow will bring me. Here we already have a complex proposal with subordinating connection between parts. From the first one - “I know” - we ask a question to the subordinate clause (what?) “what will tomorrow bring me.”

Methods of submission

The subordinate relationship is implemented in several ways. This is most noticeable within a phrase.

Coordination: when an entire syntactic unit changes, the word forms included in it also change. Wicker basket; wicker basket, about wicker basket. Dependent words in this case can be participles, adjectives, ordinal numbers and adjective pronouns.
Control: the dependent word remains unchanged, while the main word can change its grammatical form. Describes the landscape - described the landscape - describes the landscape - described the landscape. Dependent words: nouns, verbs, adjectives and cardinal numbers.
Contiguity: connection only in meaning. They walked staggering, very handsome, he went to work. Here everyone will be dependent

Coordinating connection

Unlike subordination, a coordinating connection connects absolutely equal parts. These can be either special combinations of words: flowers and herbs, he walked and rejoiced, or components of a complex sentence: “The street soon became quiet, but anxiety grew in the house.”

Here we do not highlight the main and dependent words; this connection is formalized intonationally or with the help of coordinating conjunctions. Let's compare: “He walked, cried, did not notice anyone. - He walked and cried.” In the first case, only intonation is used, in the second - the conjunction and (coordinating connective).

Phrase. Types of phrases

So, it was described above what the basic units of syntax are. The phrase is the most minimal of them. It represents two or more words connected in meaning, intonation or grammatically. Phrases are isolated from sentences because they are their integral part. This is done as follows: It is drizzling outside.

First, the grammatical basis is determined. It is not a phrase. The rain is drizzling.
Next, we ask questions from the subject: light rain (what kind?).
After this, from the predicate: it’s drizzling (where?) on the street.

According to what part of speech the main word belongs to, all phrases are divided into nominal ones (oak table, each of the guests is capable of learning); verbal (walked stumbling, speak clearly) and adverbial (very fun, to the right of the road, somewhere in the store).

Also, phrases are divided into simple and complex.

In the first, only one question is possible: the sun (which one?) is bright and radiant. Complex ones are more common. Let's compare: read (what?) a magazine (simple) and read (what) a popular science magazine. In the last example, the word magazine also asks a question about the word popular science, so the phrase is complex.

Free and integral phrases are distinguished. The first ones are distinguished by the fact that each word from their composition is a full-fledged member of the sentence. Second words in a sentence are not divided into component parts. Only two students passed the session with flying colors. “Two students” is essentially a phrase, but in the sentence it acts as the subject, so it can be characterized as integral.

Is not a phrase

It should be remembered that phrases are never:

Subject and predicate.
Homogeneous members of the sentence.
Phraseologisms (they should not be confused with whole phrases that are one member of a sentence: three sisters, a boy and a girl, etc.).
Combinations of a function word and an independent part of speech: during the day (preposition and noun), so does he (conjunction and pronoun), what an ignoramus (particle and noun).
Complex forms: I will read (future tense), the highest is calmer ( comparative degree), let him go (imperative mood).

Proposal and its signs

We already know that the basic units of syntax are phrases and sentences, but it is the latter that is the most important. After all, our speech consists precisely of sentences: with them we think and talk, composing a coherent text.

What characterizes a sentence as the basic unit of syntax? The grammatical basis is the indicator that distinguishes it from a phrase or a simple set of words. This feature is also called predicativeness, because it is the predicate that carries within itself an indicator of the reality or unreality of what is happening. It is expressed through the mood of the verb.

Also, the sentence as the basic unit of syntax is characterized by logical and intonational completeness. This short statement, the formulation of a certain thought about the subject of conversation. It cannot be confused with a phrase, because in the latter there is no logical completeness - it is simply a grammatically related set of words.

Grammar basis

Every sentence has a grammatical basis. This is an indicator of its structure - the most important characteristic.

The predicative basis can be represented by both the subject and the predicate, or each of them separately.

For example, the sentence: “We saw the long-awaited land.” There are both main members here. A sentence of this type is another matter: “The long-awaited land has become visible.” Here, from the basis, only the predicate has become visible.

It is by the number of predicative bases that we give most important characteristic: whether the sentence before us is simple or complex.

Let us briefly examine each main term. The subject shows us the subject of speech, indicates what is being said in the sentence. The predicate denotes what the subject does, what it is, who or what it is. There are three types of this main member in structure and meaning: simple and compound, verbal and nominal.

What are the offers?

It is sentences that mostly study syntax. The basic units of syntax are characterized by many parameters.

Regardless of the number of predicative stems, sentences are distinguished by:

Purposes of the statement. When communicating with each other, people can communicate certain facts (declarative sentences), ask (interrogative) or appeal to some action (motivating). At the end of such syntactic units, a period, question mark or exclamation mark is placed, respectively.
Emotional coloring. There are exclamatory and non-exclamatory sentences. It should be noted that the former may not necessarily be exclusively incentive. For example, the sentence: What a ridiculous situation! We will characterize it as narrative, but exclamatory. It’s all because of what, expressing admiration.

Characteristics of simple sentences

Simple sentences are the basic units of syntax. Let us briefly examine their most important characteristics.

One-piece or two-piece. The grammatical basis will indicate this. If it is represented by one of the members, the proposal will be one-part. Otherwise two-part. If a sentence has only a subject or predicate, it is necessary to indicate its type (definite or indefinite-personal, denominative or impersonal).
Common or not. The secondary members are responsible for this characteristic. If there is at least one of them, the offer is widespread.
Complete or incomplete. The latter are characteristic of oral speech: they omit some member. Thus, it is impossible to build a logical chain without neighboring sentences. For example: "Are you reading a book?" - “No, a magazine.” The answer to the question posed is an incomplete sentence.
A simple sentence can be complicated. This is also one of its characteristics. Complicating elements are isolated and secondary members, both common and not, as well as homogeneous constructions, introductory words, and addresses.

Sentences simple and complex

Russian syntax is very diverse. The basic syntactic units are simple and Let's figure out what the difference between them is.

If a syntactic unit has one grammatical basis, then it will be a simple sentence. The wind is very noisy today. The characteristics of such a proposal will follow the plan presented above.

There are cases when a syntactic unit consists of several simple ones. Then it will be a complex proposal.

The most difficult thing is to distinguish a simple sentence from homogeneous predicates from complex. Here you need to look carefully at the subject. If it is one object that performs different actions, then the sentence will be simple. Let's look at examples:

"They walked the streets of the city and enjoyed their newfound freedom." “They walked the streets of the city, and their newfound freedom gave them strength.” The first sentence is simple. There is only one predicative basis, complicated by homogeneous predicates: they were walking, enjoying. The second sentence will be difficult, because there are two grammatical bases: they walked, they gave freedom.

Types of connections in complex sentences

As written above, the basic units of syntax are sentences. If we talk about complex structures, then their most important characteristic will be the type of connection between the parts. Syntax also deals with these phenomena. The basic units of syntax, complex sentences, can include parts connected by subordinating and coordinating relationships. Depending on this, there is a gradation into complex and complex sentences.

Let's look at each type in more detail. The components of complex sentences are equal. This equality gives them a special, creative connection. It is expressed in the use of coordinating conjunctions in the construction of sentences. Thus, a question from one simple sentence to another is impossible.

Example: “I want to get everything back, but something always gets in my way.” This sentence is complex, the parts are connected by the adversative conjunction but.

Also, intonation plays an important role in the formation of a complex sentence: at the end of each simple sentence it goes down - this characterizes logical completeness.

Complex syntactic whole

What other elements does Russian syntax include? The basic units of syntax are also complex sentences. They consist of elements where one depends on the other. That is, between the simple parts of such a sentence, you can always pose the question: “The clearing (what?) that we came to was hidden from prying eyes.”

This connection is realized through subordinating conjunctions and intonation, descending to the end of each simple sentence.

Don't forget that there is non-union connection. It implies the absence of formal elements between parts, only intonation completeness: The river was noisy and seething; the ships sailing along it feared for their safety.

We have looked at what Russian syntax includes. The basic syntactic units, the sentence and the phrase, form other structures called the complex syntactic whole. And it, in turn, already forms the text. Within it, just like in any other element of syntax, there are connections, both grammatical and semantic, and even formal (for example, conjunctions with which the subsequent sentence begins).

What is a complex syntactic whole? This is a group of sentences, simple and complex, logically interconnected by one main idea. In other words, the syntactic whole is a microtheme that contains an intermediate meaning. As a rule, it is limited to paragraph division.

There are often cases when the text is a syntactic whole. Typically this is short stories with one short storyline.

Every language has many words, but without the correct form they mean little. The word is just the Russian language. The Russian language is especially rich in them. Syntax native language- the main assistant in the design of grammatical connections between words in sentences and phrases. Knowing the basic rules of this part of linguistics helps people build both written and spoken language.

Concept

Syntax in the Russian language is a particularly important section that studies the construction of sentences and phrases and, in addition, the relationship between the parts of speech in them. This branch of linguistics is part of grammar and is closely connected with morphology.

Linguists distinguish several types of syntax:

Communicative. Shows the relationship between combinations of words in a sentence, explores different ways of dividing sentences, considers the typology of statements, and so on.
Static. Considers individual and unrelated proposals. The object of study of this type of section of grammar is the syntactic norms of relationships between parts of speech in a sentence or phrase.
Text syntax. Explores simple and combination constructions. Its goal is linguistic analysis of the text.

All of the above types are studied by the modern Russian language. Syntax examines in detail the following units of linguistics: sentence, phrase, text.

Collocation

A phrase is a minimal syntactic unit. These are several words connected by semantic, grammatical and intonation load. In this unit, one word will be the main word, and the others will be dependent. You can ask a question about dependent words from the main one.

There are three types of connections in phrases:

Adjacency ( lie trembling, sing beautifully).
Agreement ( about a sad story, a beautiful dress).
Management ( read a book, hate the enemy).

The morphological properties of the main word are the main classification of phrases that the Russian language offers. The syntax in this case divides phrases into:

adverbial (shortly before the concert);
personalized (trees in the forest);
verbal (read a book).

Simple sentences

The Russian language is very diverse. Syntax as a special section has a main unit - a simple sentence.

A sentence is called simple if it has one grammatical basis and consists of one or more words expressing a complete thought.

A simple sentence can be one-part or two-part. This fact is revealed by the grammatical basis. A one-part sentence is represented by one of the main members of the sentence. Two-part, respectively, subject and predicate. If the sentence is one-part, then it can be divided into:

Definitely personal. (I wish you love!)
Vaguely personal. (They brought flowers in the morning.)
Generalized-personal. (You can’t cook porridge with them.)
Impersonal. (It's getting evening!)
Nominal. (Night. Street. Lantern. Pharmacy.)

Two-part can be:

Common or uncommon. The secondary members of the sentence are responsible for this characteristic. If they are not there, then (The birds are singing.) If yes - common (Cats love the strong scent of valerian.)
Complete or incomplete. Sentences are called complete if all members of the sentence are present. (The sun was setting towards the horizon.) Incomplete - where at least one syntactic unit is missing. Basically, they are characteristic of oral speech, where the meaning cannot be understood without previous statements. (Will you eat? - I will!)
Complicated. A simple sentence can be complicated by isolated and secondary members, homogeneous constructions, introductory words, appeals. (In winter in our city, especially in February, it can be very cold.)

Complex sentences

Complex sentences are those constructed from several grammatical stems.

The Russian language, the syntax of which is difficult to imagine without complex sentences, offers several types of them:

Complex. The parts of such a sentence are connected by coordinating conjunctions and coordinating connections. This connection gives simple sentences within the complex there is some independence. (The parents went on vacation, and the children stayed with their grandmother.)
Complex. The sentence parts are connected subordinating conjunctions and subordinating connection. Here one simple sentence is the subordinate clause, and the other is the main clause. (She said she would come home late.)
Non-Union. The parts of such a sentence are related in meaning, order of arrangement and intonation. (He went to the cinema, she went home.)