The appearance of a notochord, gill slits in the pharyngeal cavity, a dorsal hollow neural tube, and bilateral symmetry in the body structure during human embryonic development determines whether a person belongs to the Chordata phylum. The development of the spinal column, the heart on the ventral side of the body, the presence of two pairs of limbs - to the subphylum Vertebrata. Warm-bloodedness, the development of mammary glands, and the presence of hair on the surface of the body indicate that a person belongs to the class of Mammals (Mammalia). The development of the baby inside the mother’s body and the nutrition of the fetus through the placenta determine a person’s belonging to the Placental subclass (Eutheria). Many more specific characteristics clearly define the position of a person in the system of the Primates order.
So, from a biological point of view, humans are one of the species of mammals belonging to the order of primates, the suborder of the narrow-nosed.
The place of Homo sapiens in the modern classification is as follows:
1. Subspecies Homo sapiens sapiens
2. Species Homo sapiens
4. Tribe Homini
5. Subfamily Homininae
6. Family Hominidae
7. Superfamily Hominoidea
8. Section Catarrhini
9. Suborder Harlorhini (Antropoidea)
10. Primates Squad
Comparative anatomical evidence. The animal origin of man is evidenced by the presence of rudimentary organs and atavisms.
Rudiments are organs that, in the process of evolution, have lost their original meaning. There are only 90 rudiments in the human body:
1. coccygeal vertebrae (remnant of the caudal region);
2. poorly developed hair on the body;
3. subcutaneous muscle;
4. muscles that lift the hair;
5. muscles that move the ears;
7. brow ridges in the skull;
8. wisdom teeth;
9. appendix – cecum;
10. in the corner of the eye - the third eyelid;
11. in the circulatory system - the median sacral artery.
Atavisms are evidence of animal origin. These are deviations from the norm.
Atavisms are the appearance of characteristics characteristic of distant ancestors. These are characteristics that were laid down in embryonic development, but did not disappear, but remained for life in the human genotype:
o several pairs of nipples – multi-nipple;
o hair – polymastia throughout the body;
o cervical fistula – as a result of non-closure of the gill slit;
o strong display of fangs;
o well-developed tubercle in the corner of the ear.
o Atavisms that disrupt normal life activities:
o hole in the interventricular septum of the heart;
o the opening between the atria is the ductus botallis.
Comparative anatomical evidence includes: the same structure of the musculoskeletal, circulatory, respiratory, excretory and other organ systems in humans and monkeys. Embryological evidence of human animal origin.
Embryology is a science that studies the embryonic development of organisms.
On early stages During the development of the human embryo, there are signs of lower vertebrates:
ü cartilaginous skeleton – notochord;
ü gill arches;
ü symmetrical departure of blood vessels from the heart;
ü smooth surface of the brain.
Later, features characteristic of mammals appear:
Ø thick hair on the fetal body;
Ø several pairs of nipples;
Ø left-sided aortic arch;
Ø constant body temperature;
Ø the body cavity is divided by the diaphragm: into the thoracic and abdominal sections;
Ø mature red blood cells;
Ø teeth have two shifts (deciduous and permanent) and are divided into 3 groups;
Ø there is not a single bone in the human skeleton that mammals do not have;
Ø there are 3 auditory ossicles in the inner ear;
o A 6-month-old human fetus is covered with hair. Similarities between humans and apes
o Equal expression of feelings of joy, anger, sadness.
o Monkeys gently caress their babies.
o Monkeys take care of children, but also punish them for disobedience.
o Monkeys have a well-developed memory.
o Monkeys are able to use natural objects as simple tools.
o Monkeys have concrete thinking.
o Monkeys can walk on their hind legs, supported by their hands.
o Monkeys have nails on their fingers, like humans, rather than claws.
o Monkeys have 4 incisors and 8 molars - just like humans.
o In humans and monkeys common diseases(flu, AIDS, smallpox, cholera, typhoid fever).
o In humans and apes similar structure all organ systems.
o Biochemical evidence of the closeness of humans and monkeys:
o the degree of DNA hybridization between humans and chimpanzees is 90-98%, humans and gibbons - 76%, humans and macaques - 66%;
o Cytological evidence of the proximity of humans and monkeys:
o humans have 46 chromosomes, chimpanzees and monkeys have 48, gibbons have 44;
o in the chromosomes of the 5th pair of chimpanzee and human chromosomes there is an inverted pericentric region
All of the above facts indicate that man and apes descended from a common ancestor and allow us to determine a person’s place in the system organic world Man belongs to the phylum chordata, subphylum of vertebrates, class of mammals, and species Homo sapiens.
The similarity between humans and monkeys is proof of their relatedness and common origin, and the differences are a consequence of different directions of evolution of monkeys and human ancestors, especially the influence of human labor (tool) activity. Labor is the leading factor in the process of transformation of a monkey into a human.
The most characteristic feature of man, distinguishing him from anthropomorphic monkeys, is the exceptionally strong development of the large brain. In terms of body weight, humans occupy approximately the middle place between gorilla and chimpanzee. Data on the size of the brain in humans and other primates are given in table. 11 and in Fig. 13.9.
The large human brain differs from the large brain of anthropomorphic monkeys not only in its large mass, but also in other important features: the frontal lobe and parietal lobes are more developed, and the number of small grooves is increased. A significant part of the human cortex is associated with speech: the “motor center” of speech, the “auditory center”. There is a greater richness of interneuron contacts. New qualities have arisen in man - sound and written language, abstract thinking. Many human anatomical features are associated with upright posture and labor activity, which required the restructuring of many organs. The human spinal column has characteristic curves in the sagittal plane (lordosis and kyphosis), the chest has a flattened shape, and the pelvis is expanded, as it takes on the pressure of the internal organs (Fig. 13.10).
A person is characterized by a significant strengthening of the connection between the spinal column and the pelvis, more massive lower limbs: the femur is the most powerful bone in the skeleton, it can withstand a load of up to 1650 kg. The muscles of the lower extremities are also highly developed: the gluteal muscles, which provide abduction and extension of the hip, the greater sciatic muscle (prevents the body from tilting forward), the calf muscle and the calcaneal tendon (Fig. 13.11). The foot is a supporting organ and has a high arch, unlike the flat foot of monkeys.
A person's first finger is less mobile. In monkeys, the upper limbs are adapted to suspend the body in an extended state and to move through trees by “brachiation.” The first fingers and toes are short (Fig. 13.12), they act as a hook when hanging on a branch. When moving on the ground, the long forelimbs serve as additional support. In humans, the upper limbs, which do not perform the function of support, are shortened and less massive (Fig. 13.13). For fast free movements, excessively large limbs of the hands would be disadvantageous.
A person has increased mobility of the hand, which allows for greater freedom of movement and ensures their variety. The first finger is much better developed, its muscles are more differentiated.
Humans are characterized by the dominant development of the cerebral part of the skull, the absence of the sagittal and occipital crests, to which the masticatory muscles are attached in monkeys, more poor development supraorbital relief (superciliary ridges). The facial part of the skull, in contrast to monkeys, is less developed (Fig. 13.14), which is associated with a decrease in the massiveness of the masticatory apparatus, mass lower jaw as a percentage of the mass of the skull in a gorilla is about 45%, and in humans only 15%.
The teeth are relatively small in size; a typical sign of a person is the absence of a conical shape of the fangs and their smaller size. The development of a chin protrusion is characteristic, which is not observed in any of the monkeys; this protrusion is absent in the ancient ancestors of humans. The formation of the chin is associated with reduction of the alveolar part, straightening of the teeth and the growth characteristics of the bones of the facial skull. Human hair is reduced. These features indicate a fundamental difference between humans and animals, including monkeys.
All modern primates are not the ancestors of humans; they separated from the common trunk of ancestral forms back in the Tertiary period. There are two trends in the understanding of human nature; on the one hand, a misunderstanding of the qualitative specificity of man and the reduction of his characteristics only to quantitative ones (vulgar biologization), on the other hand, an opposite nihilistic attitude towards the biological basis of man, contrasting him with other living organisms, separating him from the animal world and from nature, of which he is a part . Dialectical materialism will provide the basis for scientific definition the essence of a person having a dual nature: biological and social
79. Paleontological data on the origin of primates and humans. Parapithecus, Dryopithecus, Australopithecus, Archanthropus, Paleoanthropus, Neoanthropus. Scientists claim that modern man did not descend from modern apes, which are characterized by narrow specialization (adaptation to a strictly defined way of life in tropical forests), but from highly organized animals that died out several million years ago - Dryopithecus. The process of human evolution is very long, its main stages are presented in the diagram.
The main stages of anthropogenesis (the evolution of human ancestors)
According to paleontological finds (fossil remains), about 30 million years ago ancient primates Parapithecus appeared on Earth, living in open spaces and in trees. Their jaws and teeth were similar to those of apes. Parapithecus gave rise to modern gibbons and orangutans, as well as the extinct branch of Dryopithecus. The latter were divided into three lines in their development: one of them led to the modern gorilla, the other to the chimpanzee, and the third to Australopithecus, and from him to man. The relationship of Dryopithecus with humans was established based on a study of the structure of its jaw and teeth, discovered in 1856 in France.
The most important stage on the path of transformation of ape-like animals into ancient people was the appearance of upright walking. Due to climate change and forest thinning, a transition has occurred from an arboreal to a terrestrial way of life; in order to better survey the area where human ancestors had many enemies, they had to stand on their hind limbs. Subsequently, natural selection developed and consolidated upright posture, and, as a consequence of this, the hands were freed from the functions of support and movement. This is how Australopithecines arose - the genus to which hominids (family of humans) belong..
Australopithecus
Australopithecus- highly developed bipedal primates that used objects of natural origin as tools (hence, Australopithecus cannot yet be considered human). Bone remains of Australopithecines were first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They were as tall as a chimpanzee and weighed about 50 kg, their brain volume reached 500 cm 3 - according to this feature, Australopithecus is closer to humans than any of the fossil and modern monkeys.
The structure of the pelvic bones and the position of the head were similar to those of humans, indicating an upright position of the body. They lived about 9 million years ago in the open steppes and ate plant and animal foods. The tools of their labor were stones, bones, sticks, jaws without traces of artificial processing.
A skilled man
Without having a narrow specialization general structure, Australopithecus gave rise to a more progressive form, called Homo habilis - a skilled man. Its bone remains were discovered in 1959 in Tanzania. Their age is determined to be approximately 2 million years. The height of this creature reached 150 cm. The volume of the brain was 100 cm 3 larger than that of australopithecines, the teeth of the human type, the phalanges of the fingers were flattened like those of a person.
Although it combined the characteristics of both monkeys and humans, the transition of this creature to the manufacture of pebble tools (well-made stone) indicates the appearance of its labor activity. They could catch animals, throw stones and perform other actions. The piles of bones found with the Homo habilis fossils indicate that meat became a regular part of their diet. These hominids used crude stone tools.
Homo erectus
Homo erectus is a man who walks upright. the species from which modern humans are believed to have evolved. Its age is 1.5 million years. Its jaws, teeth and brow ridges were still massive, but the brain volume in some individuals was the same as modern man.
Some Homo erectus bones have been found in caves, suggesting its permanent home. In addition to animal bones and fairly well-made stone tools, heaps of charcoal and burnt bones were found in some caves, so, apparently, at this time, Australopithecines had already learned to make fire.
This stage of hominid evolution coincides with the settlement of other colder regions by people from Africa. Withstand cold winters without working out complex types behavior or technical skills would be impossible. Scientists hypothesize that the prehuman brain of Homo erectus was capable of finding social and technical solutions (fire, clothing, food storage, and cave living) to the problems of surviving the winter cold.
Thus, all fossil hominids, especially australopithecus, are considered to be the predecessors of humans.
The evolution of the physical characteristics of the first people, including modern man, covers three stages: ancient people, or archanthropes; ancient people, or paleoanthropes; modern people, or neoanthropes.
Archanthropes
The first representative of the archanthropes - Pithecanthropus(Japanese man) - ape-man, upright. His bones were found on the island. Java (Indonesia) in 1891. Initially, its age was determined to be 1 million years, but, according to a more accurate modern estimate, it is slightly more than 400 thousand years old. The height of Pithecanthropus was about 170 cm, the volume of the skull was 900 cm 3.
Existed somewhat later Sinanthropus(Chinese person). Numerous remains of it were found in the period 1927 to 1963. in a cave near Beijing. This creature used fire and made stone tools. This group of ancient people also includes Heidelberg Man.
Paleoanthropes
Paleoanthropes - Neanderthals appeared to replace the archanthropes. 250-100 thousand years ago they were widely distributed throughout Europe. Africa. Western and South Asia. Neanderthals made a variety of stone tools: hand axes, scrapers, pointed points; they used fire and rough clothing. Their brain volume increased to 1400 cm3.
The structural features of the lower jaw show that they had rudimentary speech. They lived in groups of 50-100 individuals and during the advance of glaciers they used caves, driving wild animals out of them.
Aristotle was the first to include man in the animal kingdom, placing him on the highest rung in the “Ladder of Creatures.” The outstanding Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus expressed the idea of the origin of man from ape-like ancestors. In his famous work, The System of Nature (1735), he placed humans in the same order as primates on the basis of morphological similarities. The same idea was later expressed by J-B. Lamarck (1809, “Philosophy of Zoology”) and the famous Russian evolutionist K.F. Roulier. Charles Darwin in his work “The Origin of Man and Sexual Selection” (1871), summarizing enormous material from the field of systematics, comparative anatomy, embryology, physiology, paleontology, provided strong evidence about common origin humans and apes. C. Darwin wrote: “If we do not deliberately close our eyes, then modern level knowledge we can approximately recognize our ancestors, and we have no need to be ashamed of them.”
The emergence of man as a biological species is the result of a long evolutionary process of development of the animal world. Man combines the fundamental features of structure and life activity that characterize animals. The anatomical and physiological characteristics of modern man distinguish him as a special biological species - Homo sapiens ( Homo sapiens) (Table 4).
Table 4
The position of man in the system of the organic world
The commonality of humans and vertebrates is confirmed by the commonality of their structure: skeleton, nervous system, circulatory, respiratory, digestive systems. The relationship between humans and animals is especially convincing when comparing their embryonic development (Figure 22).
Figure 22. Developmental stages of human and vertebrate embryos.
I – fish, II – newt, III – turtle, IV – bird, V – pig, VI – cow, VII – rabbit, VIII – man.
At the early stages of embryonic development, the human embryo is difficult to distinguish from the embryos of other vertebrates. In the embryonic period of development, the human embryo develops a two-chambered heart, six pairs of gill arches, and a caudal artery—signs of fish-like appendages. From amphibians, humans inherited the swimming membranes between the fingers, which are present in the embryo. Weak thermoregulation in newborns and children under 5 years of age indicates origin from animals with unstable body temperature. The fetal brain is smooth, without convolutions, like those of lower mammals of the Mesozoic era. A six-week-old embryo has several pairs of mammary glands. The caudal spine is also formed, which then turns into the coccyx. Thus, the main structural features and embryonic development confirm the animal origin of man. Specific (species) human characteristics arise only at the very latest stages of embryonic development.
Species features of humans that distinguish them from other animals (in particular other mammals):
Upright walking;
The legs are longer than the arms, the foot is arched, the toes are short, the first toe is often the longest and does not deviate;
Strongly developed muscles of the lower extremities;
Very mobile skeleton of the arm, especially the hand; a hand with a large finger that is independent in its movement;
Very mobile shoulder joint, allowing rotational movements with a span of almost 180 0;
Spine with four curves;
Position of the pelvis at an angle of 60 0 to horizontal plane;
The neck articulation is located in the middle part of the base of the skull;
The face is short, almost vertical under the frontal part of the skull;
The jaws are small, with a rounded jaw arch;
The canines are usually no longer than the premolars, and there are no gaps in front or behind them;
Large volume of the brain skull compared to the facial part of the skull;
Most of the body is hairless;
Limited fertility.
The listed features of the structure and physiology of man are the result of the evolution of his animal ancestors. Important evidence of the relationship between man and animals are rudiments and atavisms. There are about 90 rudiments in the human body: the coccygeal bone (the remnant of a reduced tail); fold in the corner of the eye (remnant of the nictitating membrane); fine body hair (fur residue); process of the cecum - appendix, etc. All these rudiments are useless for humans and are the heritage of animal ancestors (Figure 23).
Figure 23. Human rudiments: A – third eyelid: 1 – human; 2 – birds; B – auricle: 1 – six-month embryo; 2 – adult; 3 – monkeys; B – cecum with vermiform appendix: 1 – human; 2 – ungulate.
Figure 24. Human atavisms: “lion boy”, tailed boy.
Figure 25. Humans and apes: a – skeletons: 1 – human, 2 – gorilla, 3 – orangutan, 4 – gibbon; b – brain: 1 – human, 2 – chimpanzee, 3 – orangutan.
Man appeared on Earth as a result of a long process of historical evolutionary development – phylogeny and is closely related by its origin to the animal world.
However, man differs from animals not only in his more perfect structure, but also in his developed thinking, the presence of articulate speech, and intelligence, which are determined by a complex of social conditions of life, social relationships, and socio-historical experience. Work and the social environment have changed the biological characteristics of humans.
In the system of the animal world, man occupies the following position: kingdom - Animals, type - Chordata, subtype - Vertebrates, class - Mammals, order - Primates, suborder - Anthropoids, section - Narrow-nosed, superfamily - Hominoids, family - Hominids, genus - Humans, species – Homo sapiens.
The human body has the following distinctive features that are characteristic of all representatives of the class of mammals.
1. Seven cervical vertebrae and the articulation of the skull with the first cervical vertebra using the condyles of the occipital bone.
2. The thoracoabdominal barrier (diaphragm), built from muscle tissue and separating the chest cavity from the abdominal cavity.
3. Two generations of teeth - milk and permanent, divided into incisors, canines and molars.
4. The presence of shaped lips and muscular cheeks.
5. A four-chambered heart that ensures the delivery of arterial blood to the tissues, which does not mix with venous blood.
6. Preservation of one (left) aortic arch, whereas amphibians and reptiles have two (right and left) aortic arches.
7. Development of the outer ear and the presence of three auditory ossicles in the middle ear cavity.
8. The skin is covered with hair (for some, only during the uterine period of development), and is rich in sweat and sebaceous glands.
9. Presence of mammary glands.
In addition to the listed structural features, humans have a number of biological features similar to mammals. Thus, the human body has a constant temperature close to 37 °C. Humans are characterized by viviparity, prolonged gestation of the fetus in the mother's body and the development of special organs to perform these functions.
Humans are most similar to primates. Primates are animals with a five-fingered grasping limb. They are able to grasp objects, which is ensured by increased mobility of the fingers and the ability of the thumb to oppose the rest.
Greater mobility of the upper limb is associated with the development of the clavicle and the structural features of the spherical shoulder joint. Primate fingers have flat nails rather than claws. Primates are plantigrade animals. When moving, they rest on the entire foot. Primates have well-developed cerebral hemispheres.
They are characterized by low fertility, care for offspring, high development of herd relations, rich facial and sound signaling.
Humans and anthropomorphic (humanoid) apes (chimpanzees, gorilla, orangutans, gibbons) form the superfamily of the higher narrow-nosed monkeys, or hominoids. Key Features The similarities of anthropomorphic monkeys with humans are manifested in the proportions of the body: a short body and long limbs, a set of features associated with upright posture: reduction of the caudal vertebrae, a decrease in the number of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae, an increase in the number of sacral vertebrae, the presence of the rudiments of bends of the spinal column, a wide sternum, etc.
Humans and anthropomorphic monkeys are similar in cytological and biochemical characteristics. Thus, the double set (diploid number) of chromosomes in the nuclei of somatic cells in higher anthropomorphic primates and in humans is almost the same (48 chromosomes in primates, 46 in humans). Homology between humans and chimpanzees has been established in blood groups and the Rh factor, which was first discovered in monkeys.
At the same time, humans, unlike higher apes, have a number of characteristic features (signs of “hominization”).
1. Upright posture associated with transformations in the musculoskeletal system.
2. Intensive development of the brain, especially the cerebral cortex.
3. Adaptation of the arm and especially the hand to work. The ability of the thumb to oppose the rest of the fingers, especially the little finger.
4. Changes in the dentofacial apparatus and the formation of articulate speech.
5. Restructuring of the stages of ontogenesis - increasing the duration of the intrauterine period, slowing down puberty, lengthening the period of childhood, increasing life expectancy.
It should be emphasized that in humans the properties that appeared in the higher apes are most clearly expressed.
The emergence of man as a biological species is the result of a long evolutionary process and is associated with historical development animal world. Man combines the fundamental features of structure and life activity that characterize animals. But unlike them, it has significant features, including high developed thinking, consciousness, creative activity, articulate speech, which arose as a result of the labor activity of a person and his social relations. The anatomical and physiological characteristics of modern man distinguish him as a special biological species - Homo sapiens.
In addition to the characteristics common to animals, man has structural features unique to him:
- upright walking;
- spine with four curves;
- arched foot with a strongly developed first toe;
- very mobile skeleton of the arm, and especially the hand;
- a very mobile shoulder joint, allowing rotational movements with a range of almost 1800;
- position of the pelvis at an angle of 600 to the horizontal plane;
- highly developed muscles of the lower extremities;
- large volume of the brain skull compared to the facial part of the skull;
- powerfully developed cerebral hemispheres with a large cortex area (about 2400 cm2);
- binocular vision;
- limited fertility;
44. The relationship between biological and social factors in the development of a person various stages anthropogenesis. The importance of human biological inheritance for social development and determining human health.
Typically, the following stages of human evolution are distinguished:
1. The most ancient stages of hominization - the origin of the genus Homo.
2. The evolution of the genus Homo before the emergence of modern humans.
3. The evolution of modern man.
The first stage of anthropogenesis is purely biological evolution. At the second stage, the action of the social factor is connected to the elementary factors of biological evolution, which is dominant at the third stage.
Stage of anthropogenesis
1. Homo habilis – Homo habilis highly developed Australopithecus or the first representative of the genus Homo.
The first creature that consciously made tools for labor and hunting: the first roughly processed stone pebbles were repeatedly found along with the remains of this creature. It was Homo Habilis who crossed the invisible border separating the genus Homo from all other biological creatures - he took the first step along the path of subordination to himself surrounding nature. The tools that Homo Habilis made were almost all quartz, and quartz was not found in the sites of these people. They brought it from a distance of 3 to 15 km. This proved that Homo habilis really was a man. He selected stone for his tools in advance. None of the animals not only does not select raw materials for their tools, but also does not even think of splitting a stone in order to make it sharp, to turn it into a tool. However, unlike later species of Homo, they were careless with the tools they made and simply threw them away after use. Scientists conducted a series of studies and came to the conclusion that the hand of Homo habilis was capable of work. She had a power grip of greater power. No monkey has such abilities. Moreover, the most ancient of the representatives of the new genus, Australopithecus anamensis, descended directly from Ardipithecus ramidus 4.4-4.1 million years ago, and 3.6 million years ago gave rise to Australopithecus afarensis, to which the famous Lucy belongs.
2. Archanthropes (ancient people): Homo erectus - Homo erectus(pithecanthropus, synanthropus), Homo erectus differed from his predecessors in height, straight posture, and human gait. The average height of synanthropes was about 150 cm for women and 160 cm for men. The arm was more developed, and the foot acquired a slight arch. The bones of the legs changed, the hip joint moved to the center of the pelvis, the spine received some bending, which balanced the vertical position of the body. Based on these progressive changes in physique and growth, the oldest man received his name - Homo erectus.
3. Heidelberg man (lat. Homo heidelbergensis)- a fossil species of humans, a European variety of Homo erectus and the immediate predecessor of Neanderthals. Representative of the archanthropes. Bottom detected jaw (massive, without a chin protrusion, generally similar to that of a monkey) with a full set of teeth, which are close in size, shape and structure to human ones. Usually G. h. are combined with Pithecanthropus, Sinanthropus, and others. ancient people into one species - Homo erectus.
Speech (primitive, consisting of individual shouts). The presence of speech centers, which first emerged in N. habilis, also suggests the development of a second signaling system. in these adaptations, along with the factors of biological evolution, social factors also played a significant role: the joint production of shelters, tools and the use of fire.
4. Paleoanthropes (ancient people) Neanderthal Man – Homo neanderthalensis
Considered as a subspecies of Homo sapiens (Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)
Speech (advanced forms such as babbling). Complex forms of collective activity (driven hunting), caring for others. Making fire. They were characterized by a dense muscular build with a small stature (160-163 cm in men), a massive skeleton, a voluminous chest, and an extremely high ratio of body mass to its surface, which reduced the relative heat transfer surface. These characteristics could be the result of selection acting in the direction of energetically more favorable heat exchange and an increase in physical strength. Neanderthals had a large, although still primitive brain (1400-1600 cm3 and above), a long massive skull with a developed supraorbital ridge, a sloping forehead and an elongated “chignon-shaped” nape; a very peculiar “Neanderthal face” - with sloping cheekbones, a strongly protruding nose and a cut off chin.
5. Neoanthropes (new people) Homo sapiens (Cro-Magnon)
Real speech, thinking, art. Development agriculture, crafts, religion. Fossil humans had somewhat more massive skeletons than modern humans. Ancient people created a rich culture (various tools made of stone, bone and horn, dwellings, sewn clothing, polychrome painting on cave walls, sculpture, engraving on bone and horn). The unusually rapid process of settlement of modern humans, which may be evidence of the “explosive”, spasmodic nature of anthropogenesis during this period, both in the biological and social sense. With the emergence of man of the modern physical type, the role of biological factors in his evolution was reduced to a minimum, giving way to social evolution.
Homo sapiens is a unique life form that combines biological and social entities. The life activity of the human body is based on fundamental biological mechanisms, patterns of metabolism and energy, determined by the morphofunctional characteristics of the body, which ensure adaptation to the environment.
At the same time, the biological essence manifests itself under the influence of higher laws, social form movement of matter. In the process of anthropogenesis, it was formed social essence human as a system of material and spiritual factors, interpersonal and psycho-emotional relationships that arise in joint work activities. The social factor has a significant impact on a person’s life and health.
The process of individual human development is based on two types of information:
First view represents biologically appropriate information that was selected and preserved during the evolution of ancestral forms and recorded in the form of genetic information in DNA (a mechanism for encoding, storing, implementing and transmitting information from generation to generation, universal for all living organisms). Thanks to this in individual development Human beings develop a unique set of structural and functional characteristics that distinguish them from other living organisms.
Second type information is represented by the sum of knowledge and skills that are acquired, preserved and used by generations of people during the development of human society. The assimilation of this information by an individual occurs in the process of his upbringing, training and life in society. This human feature is determined by the concept of social heredity, inherent exclusively in human society.
Distinguish individual health(person) and collective health(family, professional group, social class, population). Human health has long become not only a personal problem, but also a criterion for life in various countries of the world.
The main indicators of convenience and prosperity human life are:
♦ the state of the healthcare system;
♦ sanitary conditions and environment;
♦ percentage of malnourished young children;
♦ attitude towards women in society;
♦ level of literacy of the population;
♦ organization of obstetric care.
Population health is also determined by social factors:
♦ protection of the population (political, legal, juridical);
♦ realization of the rights to work, education, healthcare, recreation, information, etc.;
♦ nature of nutrition (its sufficiency and completeness);
♦ real wages and working conditions;
♦ living conditions, etc.
Question 1. Describe the systematic position of man in the animal world.
Man belongs to the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrates, class Mammals, subclass Placentals, order Primates, suborder Anthropoid (anthropoid-Great apes) primates, superfamily Greater apes, family Hominids (Humans), the only genus Homo with the only species Homo sapiens (Homo Sapiens).
In addition to the anthropoid suborder, primates also include lemurs and tarsiers.
Question 2. Indicate the characteristics of humans as a representative of the class of mammals.
Humans can be classified as Mammals based on the following characteristics:
seven cervical vertebrae;
hair, sweat and sebaceous glands of the skin;
well developed lips and muscular cheeks;
diaphragm and alveolar lungs;
the auricle and three auditory ossicles of the middle ear;
one aortic arch (left) and anucleate red blood cells;
warm-blooded;
mammary glands, care of offspring;
similarities in embryo development.
Question 3. What characteristics are common to humans and apes?
Humans are similar to apes (ponids) due to their large body size, the absence of a tail and cheek pouches, good development facial muscles, similar structure of the skull and skeleton in general. In addition, what humans and apes have in common are blood types and the Rh factor, similarity of chromosomes (out of 23 chromosomes, 13 are similar to chimpanzees), various diseases, a long gestation period and a long prepubertal (pre-reproductive) period. Unites them and high level development of higher nervous activity, the ability to quickly learn, the ability to use tools, good memory, rich emotions. An example is experiments on teaching apes the language of deaf-mutes, during which gorillas and chimpanzees learned up to 200-300 sign words. The human and chimpanzee genomes are 98.5% identical.
Question 4. List the structural features that are unique to humans.
There are differences between humans and animals.
Man is a social being who produces tools and uses them to influence nature. A person has a highly developed brain, possesses consciousness, thinking, articulate speech and a number of anatomical features that arose in connection with labor activity, which is unique to humans. The differences are related to the direction of evolution. Man and apes are two branches of the order of primates, which in relatively recent times separated from the common genealogical trunk.
It is typical for a person to:
1. Adaptation to upright walking. The spine has acquired an S-shaped curvature, the foot has a dome shape. These are the main devices that provide shock absorption and shock absorption of the body when walking and jumping, which is important for protecting the brain. The big toe functions as a support. The pelvis is wider, it takes on the pressure of the organs in an upright position. The chest is flat, compressed laterally, due to the pressure that the internal organs exert on the ribs due to the horizontal position of the body when walking. The brain part of the skull has increased and dominates the facial part. There are no brow ridges. The jaws and chewing muscles are less developed. In the lower part of the body, the gluteal, quadriceps, gastrocnemius, and soleus muscles are especially developed. The consequences of upright walking are associated with limited speed of movement, hypertension, immobile sacrum, dilated veins in the legs, and osteochondrosis.
2. The presence of a flexible hand - an organ of labor adapted to complex movements. The human hand is specialized as a grasping organ; the thumb is well mobile. A person's arms are shorter than his legs.
3. The brain is well developed. In humans, the temporal, frontal and parietal lobes are highly developed, where the main centers of higher nervous activity are located. The surface of the brain is 1250 cm2. The surface area of the cortex in the frontal region is twice that of great apes. The appearance of speech, abstract thinking, and consciousness is characteristic.
4. Hairless skin has become a giant receptor field capable of bringing additional information to the brain. This was a factor in the intensive development of the brain. "Balding" of the skin is the last biological prerequisite for the development of man as a creative social being.
Question 5. Which
The increase in the size and complexity of the structure of the brain provided a person with the opportunity to develop many functions, such as highly organized nervous activity, the ability to learn, the presence of a large amount of memory and complex emotions, speech. They also contributed to the emergence abstract thinking and ability to work. The centers associated with the senses provide the finest analysis of visual and auditory information, which allows us to perceive and understand facial expressions and speech. The motor centers of the brain carry out extremely precise and operative control of the muscles of the fingers, vocal cords etc. In many ways, it was the development of the brain that allowed man to reach the high stage of evolutionary development that he now occupies.
